Quantitative Pluralism

There can be no doubt that a neutral pluralism of the type we have outlined is in many respects an extremely powerful theory. Not only does it establish a metaphysical position which calls for serious consideration, but it introduces into the philosophical world an analytic technique the value of which it would be diffi cult to overestimate. It is not possible to undertake a detailed criticism here ; but it is probable that the chief objections to current expositions of the theory are to be found in the fact that they dispose of some of the traditionally pressing questions of metaphysics with arguments which may be regarded as unduly facile, to say the least ; while many will feel that most of the really ultimate problems are left untouched. No doubt the supporters would retort that these problems are insoluble, and no more time should be wasted on them.

Material Pluralism.

There remain for consideration ma terial pluralism and spiritual pluralism. For the material pluralist the world consists, in the last analysis, entirely of particles or bodies, the properties of which are among those commonly associated with the concept of matter, in particular mass (or, perhaps, electric charge) ; position and (perhaps) extension in space ; and position and (perhaps) extension in time.

The earliest philosophers to give coherent expression to a theory of this kind were the Greeks, Leucippus and Democritus (about 46o-35o B.c.). We owe to Leucippus the first clear state ment of philosophic materialism, namely, the reduction of all reality to the primary qualities of matter. The denial of qualita tive differences between the elements was combined with an atomic theory of matter which was conceived as split up into an infinite number of minute reproductions of itself, these "atoms" being invisible to the eye, eternal and unchangeable, and differ ing from one another only in shape and size. The scientific de velopment of this point of view by Democritus was an out standing philosophical achievement which marked a definite stage in the progress of the speculative thought of antiquity.

Although material pluralism, or atomistic materialism, suffered long periods of eclipse during the middle ages and the Renais sance, it has been revived at intervals and was finally given com plete and powerful expression s as a result of the great advances made during the last century in physical and biological science. Twentieth century materialism is chiefly associated with the name of Herbert Spencer (182o-19o3), who developed an ex tremely comprehensive system based on three current doctrines which were just then achieving remarkable triumphs in the re spective realms of chemistry, physics and biology. These doc

trines were the atomic theory, the principles governing the dis tribution and conservation of energy, and the Darwinian theory of evolution by natural selection. In a swift and temporarily overwhelming advance, philosophic materialism reached its zenith. But its success was a transient one. Before the end of the cen tury it was already beginning to stagger under the powerful blows of its opponents, and during the years that have since elapsed it has ceased to be regarded as a tenable metaphysical theory. It can probably be safely stated that it will never again be revived unless it be in so changed a form as to be un recognizable. Briefly, its downfall may be said to be due to three inherent defects. In the first place the concepts and principles on which it is based are merely descriptive in character, that is, they do no more than give an account of what actually occurs, or is presumed to occur, in the world, and do not even begin to pro vide any kind of genuine explanation of reality. Not only this, but secondly, modern analysis has shown that most of the conceptions of conventional materialism, so far from corresponding to any thing really concrete, are most probably no more than abstractions from, or constructions made up of, the content perceived by minds in sense-experience or perception. Thirdly, materialism has never yet been able to give an account of the origin of mind which could possibly be accepted as a satisfying one, while its consequent attempts to dismiss mind as unreal or at most real but ineffective, have been extremely facile and altogether uncon vincing.

Spiritual Pluralism.

There remains spiritual pluralism, and it is to this type of theory that the name "pluralism" is most commonly understood to apply at the present time. It is the belief that the world consists ultimately of an indefinite number of beings, essentially spiritual in character. Its origin can be traced back, albeit in a vague form, even to the obscure hylozo ism of the ancients, who regarded all nature as alive and informed with a countless number of animate beings, to whose activities all her manifestations were due. But at this epoch the distinction between the physical and the mental had not begun to emerge clearly, and only when this occurred was it possible for the de velopment of spiritual pluralism to take place.