For the British authorities the campaign was a serious respon sibility. Food, clothing and munitions had to be unified so far as possible for the simplifying of supply. Each contingent required special items in its ration—rum for the British, wine for the French, coffee for the United States troops, onions for the Ital ians and a double ration of bread for the Russians. The town of Archangel contained at least three times its normal population owing to the influx of refugees, and it was impossible to let the population starve. Large supplies had to be imported for this purpose.
Winter of 1918-19.—The transition stage from summer to winter proved a difficult period for the Allies. The freezing of the Dvina came unusually late in Nov. 1918 and the Allied gunboats were withdrawn too soon for wintering in Archangel. The Bol shevik gunboats were thus enabled to descend the river from their more closely situated winter quarters and bombarded the Allied positions with their long-range guns with impunity. Many casualties were caused and much damage was done to the care fully prepared winter quarters of the troops. The situation was at one time critical, British and Americans, supported by Cana dian artillery, fighting desperately to maintain their positions.
At Archangel during the winter the attitude of the Allies was purely defensive, covering the mobilization and training of the new troops of the North Russian provisional Government. In the Murmansk area their task was to maintain a perpetual threat towards Petrograd and to divert as much of the Bolshevik forces as possible from Archangel. Fighting continued throughout the winter in both areas at irregular intervals, the Bolsheviks grow ing more efficient and exerting greater and greater pressure on the Allied columns. The intense cold and the continual dark ness tried even the stoutest heart. Exposure after a wound meant certain death, and to touch metal with the bare flesh was to brand oneself as with a red-hot iron. The curious noises in the forest in intense cold made sentry duty most trying. Machine guns could only be used in warmed blockhouses, the field of fire of which might be destroyed in a night by a heavy fall of snow. Flying conditions were intolerable, even with electrically heated clothing. Aerodromes were only made possible for starting and landing by marching whole battalions over the snow. Only the strictest dis cipline could save the troops from heavy casualties through frostbite and sickness.
The war-worn Allied troops may well be proud of their efforts during this critical winter. All the main Archangel positions were maintained intact against the repeated attacks of a superior enemy. In May 1919, when the frost broke, the forces of the provisional Government had been raised in numbers to 20,000 men of all arms, properly clothed, equipped and organized. In the Murmansk area, Gen. Maynard's troops had succeeded in seizing
the northern end of Lake Onega, thus making their threat against Petrograd an effective one, and containing a considerable force of active Bolshevik forces.
Arrival of Relieving Force.—The general thaw commenced in the first week of May, and by the 12th the river was free of ice. Two relief brigades under Brig.-Gens. Grogan and Sadlier-Jack son arrived at Archangel on May 26 and June io respectively, having had to force their way through the pack-ice of the White sea. Evacuation of all troops which had spent the winter in north Russia commenced at once.
Evacuation of North Russia.—The evacuation of all Allied personnel from north Russia before the arrival of winter in 1919 having been ordered, preparations for this were at once begun. The old contingents were embarked in turn, the British being the last to leave. Then followed those elements of the population which had elected to leave the country. In all, some 17,000 per sons were transported from north Russia in British ships at a time when shipping had been much reduced through the German sub marine campaign. By the end of July nothing remained but the fighting troops of the relief force and a few necessary admin istrative services.
It had been hoped to make a junction with Adm. Kolchak's troops advancing from Siberia, but the defeat of the Siberians made this impossible. Nothing remained but to disengage the British troops from their advanced positions with a view to leav ing the local Russian troops in the best defensive positions pos sible. A gradual substitution of Russian for British troops and administration was therefore commenced, the process being ac companied by several outbreaks of mutiny amongst the new troops. The fronts of the various columns were cleared by vigor ous action on the part of Brig.-Gens. Graham and Sadlier-Jack son, ably supported by the naval flotilla under Capt. Altham. By Aug. i o the situation had been made satisfactory to the Russian commanders, and the withdrawal of the British troops to the inner defences of Archangel commenced.