Ii Imperial Period

Frederick Barbarossa.

He was succeeded by Frederick I., surnamed Barbarossa, who took no notice of letters urging him to come and receive the empire from the Roman people. In accord ance with his design of subduing all the independent cities, he made an agreement with the pope, in which he vowed to give no truce to the Romans, but subject them to their spiritual lord, whose temporal power should be restored. The pope, on his side, promised to crown him emperor. Thereupon the people again rose to arms and broke off all negotiations with Eugenius III. Frederick was in command of a powerful army, and was no friend of half measures. To increase the gravity of the situation, an English pope, Adrian IV., was elected who was also a man of strong and resolute temper. In fact, even before he was able to take possession of the Lateran, he requested the Romans to banish Arnold, who was directing his thunders against the papacy. These utterances increased the wrath of Adrian, who, encouraged by the knowledge that Frederick and his host were already in Italy, at last launched an interdict against Rome. It was the first time that a pope had laid an interdict on the Eternal City. This put a summary stop to the religious life of the in habitants and men's minds were seized with terror; a fierce tumult broke out. Thereupon the senators implored pardon ; but Adrian demanded the expulsion of Arnold before consenting to raise the interdict. Arnold was therefore obliged to leave Rome, and, abandoned by all, was forced to wander from castle to castle, until given up to Frederick Barbarossa and then consigned by the latter to the papal legates. The pope in his turn gave the reformer into the hands of the prefect, who hanged his prisoner, burnt his body at the stake, and cast his ashes into the Tiber.

But the Romans would not give up their commune. Their en voys went to meet Frederick near Sutri, and made an address in the usual fantastic style on the privileges of the Roman people and its sole right to confer the imperial crown. Frederick indig nantly cut short their harangue, and they had to depart full of rage. He then continued his march, and, entering Rome on June 18, 1155, was forthwith crowned in St. Peter's by the pope. Thereupon the Romans rushed to arms and made a furious attack on the Leonine city and the imperial camp. A desperate battle went on throughout the day ; many Romans perished by the sword or by drowning, but their fellow-citizens made such determined preparations to continue the struggle that Frederick, on June 19, hastily retreated, or rather fled, together with the pope and the cardinals. The commune still survived. Its existence was in truth favourable rather than injurious to Frederick, but he had not yet discerned that his best policy would be to support the commune against the pope. The latter, with keener acumen, made alliance with the communes of Lombardy and encouraged them in their resistance to the emperor. Adrian IV. died in 1159, and the anti imperial party elected Alexander III. (1159-81), who energeti cally opposed the pretensions of Frederick, but, having to struggle with three anti-popes successively raised against him by the impe rial party, was repeatedly driven into exile. During these schisms the senate quietly carried on the government, administered jus tice and made war on some neighbouring cities and barons. An

army comprising many nobles marched against Tusculum, but found it defended by several valiant officers and a strong band of German soldiery, who, on May 29, 1167, inflicted on the Romans so severe a defeat that it is styled by Gregorovius "the Cannae of the middle ages." Shortly afterwards the emperor arrived in Rome with his anti-pope Paschal III., and Alexander had to flee. Then, at last, Frederick came to terms with the commune, recog nized the senate, which accepted investiture at his hands, re established the prefecture as an imperial office, and bestowed it on John, son of Peter di Vico. He departed hastily, as a deadly fever broke out and decimated his army.

Concord between Pope and Commune.--Meanwhile

Pope Alexander continued Adrian's policy with better success, how ever, for the Lombard cities had now formed a league and inflicted a signal defeat on the emperor at Legnano on May 29, 1176. One of the results of this battle was the conclusion of an agreement between the pope and the emperor, the latter resign ing his pretensions on Rome and yielding all that he had denied to Adrian. By the Treaty of Venice (Aug. 1, 1177), the anti-pope was forsaken, Alexander III. recognized and hailed as the legiti mate pontiff and the prefect of Rome was again to be nominated by the pope, to whom the emperor restored the temporal power, acknowledging him the independent sovereign of Rome and of the ecclesiastical State. Frederick's troops accompanied the pope to Rome, where the commune was forced to make submission to him. But, proudly conscious as it still was of its strength, its surrender wore the aspect of a voluntary concession, and its terms began with these words: "It has been decreed by the council and deliberation of the whole Roman people," etc. The senators, elected yearly in November, had to swear fealty to the pope. On his return to Rome Alexander received a solemn welcome from all. He died on Aug. 3o, 1181. The fact that between 1181 and 1187 there were three popes always living in exile proves that the commune was by no means crushed. On Dec. 20, 1187, Clement III. (1187-91) made a solemn agreement with the gov ernment of the capitol before coming to Rome. And this peace or concordia had the air of a treaty between potentates of equal importance. Rome confronted the pope from the same standpoint from which the Lombard cities had confronted the emperor after Legnano. This treaty was confirmed on the last day of May '188 (Anno XLIV . of the senate). The pope was recognized as su preme lord, and invested the senators with their dignity. Almost all the old pontifical rights and prerogatives were restored to him. The pope might employ the Roman militia for the defence of his patrimony, but was to furnish its pay. The rights of the Church over Tivoli and Tusculum were confirmed ; but the commune reserved to itself the right of making war on those cities, and declared its resolve to dismantle and destroy the walls and castle of Tusculum. In this undertaking the pope was to co-operate with the Romans, even should the unhappy city make surrender to him alone.