(2) In the North-Eastern Area, which includes Archangel, Vologda, the North Dwina province and the Autonomous Komi or Zirian Area, there is much tundra with nomad reindeer breed ing by native tribes. The timber wealth is great, especially in the basin of the Pechora and huts are everywhere built of wood; lumbering is the chief occupation of the people, with hunting and fishing as a supplementary source of income. In Kholmogory cattle breeding has been important since Peter the Great started the industry by importing breeds of cattle from Holland, and Kholmogory supplies Leningrad with veal. Dairying is important in Vologda and is of an export character, though it is hampered by lack of transport facilities. In consequence of the severe winter, cultivation is little developed, flax growing is of an export character and rye, oats and barley are sown, but grain has to be imported. Forest clearing by burning and subsequent sowing of crops still goes on here as in very ancient times, especially among the Finnish tribes. When the area thus cleared loses its fertility it is left to grow wild again and a fresh patch is cleared. Peasant industries include the preparation of pitch and tar for export through Archangel and the making of homespun linen and of every variety of wooden article. During the summer many peas ants migrate to Archangel to work as dock hands, and to the North Sea fisheries. The coal, graphite, salt, naphtha and lead of the region are as yet unexploited.
(3) The Western Area includes Smolensk, Briansk, White Rus sia and part of Pskov, Tver and Kaluga. Cultivation is the main source of livelihood, flax, potatoes and grass crops are increasing and in several regions the three field system has died out, though in others it still prevails. Winter rye and oats are the chief grain crops, but grain has to be imported, and agriculture is insufficient for the needs of the people, so that in some areas 35% of the peasants are unemployed and wander seasonally in search of work.
Drainage of the marshes is being undertaken on a large scale as a relief measure. Cattle breeding and dairying is important and Yorkshire breeds of pigs have been imported with a view to devel oping a bacon industry. Lumbering and industries dependent on it are important ; there are cardboard and paper factories and a match industry depending on the ash forest. Glass and pottery manufactures are developing and in the south-east iron ore and coal are mined and there are smelting works. Phosphorite beds exist, but are little worked at present. Huge peat resources exist, and electrification dependent on them has recently been developed. Peasant-made wooden articles, including sleighs, carts, boats, plates, etc., are exported to other regions.
(4) The Central Productive Area includes Moscow, Vladimir, Ivanovo-Voznesensk, Tver, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Ryazan, Kaluga and part of the provinces of Nizhegorod and Tula. This is the region of the great textile industries, cotton, wool, linen and silk, and factory life is more strongly developed here than anywhere else in Russia. The manufacture of food stuffs, metal and metal wares, the preparation of furs and sheepskins and of leather goods are other industries of the region. The chief cities are Moscow, Tula, Yaroslavl, Ivanovo-Voznesensk, and Tver, all with popula tions of over 1 oo,000, and there are numerous smaller factory towns. Coal is worked in the south, iron in the south and south east and phosphorite from the beds lying to the north-east of the coal field. A difficulty of the region was the inadequate fuel supply,
but the Soviet government has erected several electric power sta tions working on peat and local coal which cheapen production by lessening the freightage cost of fuel.
A great part of the region is purely agricultural, and in the northern area agriculture has developed recently on modern lines, with a many field system, efficient manuring and up-to-date im plements, but in the south it is still in a backward condition. The proximity of Moscow, which makes it easy for agronomical experts to help the peasants, has led to this more intensive development.
The chief crops are winter rye, oats, potatoes, flax, barley, millet, buckwheat, hemp and summer wheat. Horses, cattle, sheep and pigs are bred. The grain supply is insufficient for the needs of the towns. Vegetables, pears, apples and currants and berries are grown to supply the town markets and meat, milk and dairy pro duce also depend on town demand. It was on the morainic boulder clay soil of this region that agriculture first developed among the Great Russian settlers, and it is interesting to note that manu factures are now replacing agriculture, in much the same way as agriculture formerly replaced reliance on trade in furs, honey, wax and slaves. Forest still covers 4o% of the area, which is a transi tion zone from coniferous to mixed deciduous, which thins out in the south. Lumbering and industries dependent on timber occupy part of the population. Peasant industries, mainly conducted in artels, or co-operative groups, are very strongly developed and the factory textile industry has its origin in the early skill of the peasants in making homespun.
Millions of people are thus occupied and their products are sold at the Nijni-Novgorod fair; each district has its speciality.
Footwear is made in Tver province, homespun linen in Yaroslavl and Kostroma. The latter province is also famous for its wooden spoons and its bast work (especially the bast shoes worn by peasants), small wooden articles, and for small silver, pewter and brass articles. In Nizhegorod wooden goods and felt boots and caps are the chief products. The Pavlov district is famous for its locks and the Vorsm district for knives. In Moscow province the peasants are noted for their skill in making furniture, pottery and toys, and Tula samovars (tea urns) are famous all over Russia. The development of peasant handicraft, called koustar, is strong here and is attributable partly to the six months' win ter, when the peasant naturally found some other outlet for his energies since outdoor work was impossible, and partly to his need to supplement his scanty income from agriculture. Moreover the weak development of factory industry and the poor transport conditions made the peasant dependent on his own resources for clothing, utensils and other necessities. The Tsarist government encouraged peasant industry and established training schools for craftsmen. The industry declined sharply after the recent war and famine years, owing to lack of raw materials and to the peasants' lowered stamina. The Soviet government has organized peasant co-operatives, unions and artels, and is now developing these indus tries, as their importance for the peasants' life in view of the present small factory output is very great. Many peasants migrate to the Volga as boatmen and dock hands during the navigation season.