In the principalities of Vladimir and Suzdal in the Central part of Russia we find, in the 13th century, not only Byzantine influences but partly Romanesque (see BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE ARCHI TECTURE) brought there from Italy. The former manifests itself in the general form of the churches, the latter mainly in their decoration. The Romanesque arched gallery on the level of the second storey of the church was introduced as a decorative ele ment in the form of an ornament of arches. In general the archi tecture of Vladimir is characterized by a love for ornamentation that accentuates architectural masses. The walls of St. George in Youryev, wholly covered with ornaments of Romanesque origin, but strongly influenced by motifs of the native wood-sculpture for which Vladimir was famous, are typical. In the native wooden architecture projecting beams were carved, and the whole length of the crest of a building was sometimes ornamented by such beams projecting through. When stone became common in build ings designers drew inspiration from these forms.
The dominance of Moscow's architecture increased gradually with its political ascendancy. Masters from Novgorod and Pskov worked there, and the Russian national architecture reached its highest development in Moscow during the 14th and 15th centuries. The application of the motifs of the wooden architecture to stone building found its best expression in the tented church. As in the wooden, the square plan of the stone church was transformed by a system of little arches of peculiar form (kokoshniki) into an octagon, the basis of the tent. This turret-shaped church was frequently used during the i6th and 17th centuries; the tent was also widely applied to the roofs of belfries and towers. The basic elements of the Moscow church architec ture took final form in the i6th century, and thereafter attention centred on structural ornamentation, some of which is comparable in richness to the best examples of the Florentine Renaissance. A reaction followed, characterized by pettiness of form and exces sive flourishes, and sometimes erroneously regarded as the typical Russian style. One typical feature, however, is evident even in this period of decadence: the grouping of buildings in ensembles in whose composition as well as that of the individual buildings picturesque effects were produced. Many of the old monasteries, which, being surrounded by towered and crenellated walls, fre quently resemble little fortresses, are interesting specimens of such ensembles.
In the majority of Russian cities of the period their central part was surrounded by strong walls with towers and battlements and sometimes by embankments and water-filled moats. This was
called the Kremlin. It contained the ducal palace, government buildings, houses for the dignitaries and ducal guard and the prin cipal cathedrals and churches. The Kremlin was really a fortress and was usually located on an elevation dominating the surround ing territory. Beginning with the austere lines of the fortress wall and ending with a group of majestic cathedrals whose golden cupolas sparkled in the sun, it generally made an extremely pic turesque composition. The Moscow Kremlin is probably the best preserved. Although rebuilt many times it nevertheless pre sents a true picture of an ancient Kremlin; at the same time having a considerable number of Italian details, it is a good exam ple of the Russianizing of foreign architectural forms.
At the beginning of the 18th century, while Moscow and the rest of Russia continued to live according to tradition, Peter the Great (1689-1725) undertook to build a new capital, St. Petersburg, in the far north of his empire—a move which at once involved extensive and imposing building and a radical change from an isolated political existence to closer con tact with western Europe. A new epoch in Russian architecture began. Being an innovator in everything, Peter strove from the first to create a new architecture. Instead of employing Moscow masters, he enlisted an army of architects, engineers and crafts men from all parts of Europe. Their work resulted in the erec tion of incongruous buildings in western European forms. A degree of order came into this architectural chaos only after Peter's death, when Russian architects became educated in western European art, and Russian architecture, although it could look back on nearly eight centuries of national traditions, turned toward classicism. Thereafter its evolution was divided into two currents, one characteristic of the new capital, St. Petersburg, the other of Moscow, the old. All subsequent architectural periods and fashions were perceived and developed differently in each.
In St. Petersburg, the official capital, which grew rapidly, building progressed on a large scale. Architectural ensembles grew up along whole tracts of streets and quays and around vast squares. Most of the new buildings erected by the Government, its officials and the aristocracy were palatial, solemn and somewhat haughty. In Moscow, which had then dropped out of political life but where the charm of the traditions of a great past still existed, the buildings were simple, noble and showed a certain intimate affability.