The Beginnings of Rome

On the Adriatic coast the immediate interests of Rome were limited to rendering the sea safe for Italian trade. It was with this object that, in 229, the first Roman expedition crossed the Adriatic, and inflicted severe chastisement on the Illyrian pirates of the opposite coast. This expedition was the means of estab lishing for the first time direct political relations between Rome and the states of Greece proper, to many of which the suppression of piracy in the Adriatic was of as much importance as to Italy. Alliances were concluded with Corcyra, Epidamnus and Apollonia ; and embassies explaining the reasons which had brought Roman troops into Greece were sent to the Aetolians, the Achaeans and even to Athens and Corinth. Everywhere they were well received, and the admission of the Romans to the Isthmian games (228) formally acknowledged them as the natural allies of the free Greek states against both barbarian tribes and foreign despots. Mean while Carthage had acquired a possession which promised to compensate her for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. The genius of her greatest citizen and soldier, Hamilcar Barca, had appreciated the enormous value of the Spanish peninsula, and con ceived the scheme of founding there a Carthaginian dominion which should not only add to the wealth of Carthage, but supply her with a base of operations for a war of revenge with Rome. The conquest of southern and eastern Spain, begun by Hamilcar (236– 228) and carried on by his kinsman Hasdrubal (228-221), was completed by his son Hannibal, who, with all his father's genius, inherited also his father's hatred of Rome, and by 219 the author ity of Carthage had been extended as far as the Ebro (see SPAIN, History). Rome's ancient ally Massilia (mod. Marseilles) was especially disturbed by these advances, for she had trading posts on the coast of Spain which would become unprofitable if Carthage conquered the whole of the interior and drew the com merce of the peninsula southwards to the Punic ports. Further more, since Carthage forbade Massiliot traders to make use of the straits of Gibraltar, Massiliot trade in British tin would be endangered if Carthage succeeded in reaching southern Gaul. From the fact that Marseilles lent her whole navy to Rome when the war broke out we may assume that her envoys were active in reporting the advance of Carthage in Spain and in interpreting that advance as aired at Rome. Rome finally was induced to act. A defensive alliance was signed with Saguntum, a seaport of Spain which was still independent, and Hasdrubal was asked to promise that Carthage should not carry her arms beyond the Ebro river (226).

Second Punic War, 218-211.

But these precautions were of no avail against the resolute determination of Hannibal, with whom the conquest of Spain 'was only preliminary to an attack upon Italy, and who could not afford to leave behind him in Spain a state allied to Rome. In 219, therefore, disregarding the pro tests of a Roman embassy, he attacked and took Saguntum, an act which, as he had foreseen, rendered a rupture with Rome in evitable, while it set his own hands free for a further advance. For the details of the war which followed, the reader may be referred to the articles PUNIC WARS; HANNIBAL; and SCIPIO. From the outbreak of hostilities until the crowning victory of Cannae in 216 Hannibal's career of success was unchecked; and the annihilation of the Roman army in that battle was followed by the defection of almost the whole of southern Italy, with the exception of the Latin colonies and the Greek coast towns. In 215, moreover, Philip V. of Macedon formed an alliance with Hannibal and threatened to invade Italy; in 214 Syracuse revolted, and in 212 the Greek cities in northern Italy went over to Hanni bal. But the indomitable spirit of the Romans asserted itself in the face of these crushing misfortunes. In 212 Syracuse was re covered ; in 211 Capua fell after a long siege which Hannibal failed to raise, even by his famous march up to the gates of Rome, and in the same year a coalition was formed in Greece against Philip V. of Macedon, which effectually paralysed his offensive action. Hannibal was now confined to Lucania and Bruttium ; and his brother Hasdrubal, marching from Spain to join him, was defeated and slain on the river Metaurus (207).

The war in Italy was now virtually ended, for, though during four years more Hannibal stood at bay in a corner of Bruttium, he was powerless to prevent the restoration of Roman authority throughout the peninsula. Sicily was once more secure ; and finally in 206, the year after the victory on the Metaurus, the successes of the young P. Scipio in Spain (211-206) were crowned by the complete expulsion of the Carthaginians from the peninsula. On his return from Spain Scipio eagerly urged an immediate invasion of Africa. The senate hesitated ; but Scipio gained the day. He was elected consul for 205, and given the province of Sicily, with permission to cross into Africa if he thought fit. Voluntary contributions of men, money and supplies poured in to the support of the popular hero ; and by the end of 205 Scipio had collected in Sicily a sufficient force for his purpose. In 204 he crossed to Africa, where he was welcomed by the Nu midian prince Massinissa, whose friendship he had made in Spain. In 203 he twice defeated the Carthaginian forces, and a large party at Carthage were anxious to accept his offer of negotiations. But the advocates of resistance triumphed.

Hannibal was recalled from Italy, and returned to fight his last battle against Rome at Zama, where Scipio, who had been continued in command as proconsul for 202 by a special vote of the people, won a complete victory. The war was over. The Roman assembly voted that the Carthaginian request for peace should be granted, and entrusted the settlement of the terms to Scipio and a commission of ten senators. Carthage was allowed to retain her territory in Africa ; but she undertook to wage no wars outside Africa, and none inside without the consent of Rome. She surrendered all her ships but ten triremes, her elephants, and all prisoners of war, and agreed to pay an indemnity of 10,000 talents in 5o years. The Numidian Massinissa (q.v.) was rewarded by an increase of territory, and was enrolled among the "allies and friends" of the Roman people.

The West Under Roman Rule.

The battle of Zama decided the fate of the West. The power of Carthage was broken and her supremacy passed to Rome. Henceforth Rome had no rival to fear westward of Italy, and it rested with herself to settle within what limits her supremacy should be confined and what form it should take. In Sicily the former dominions of Hieron were at once united with the western half of the island as a single prov ince, and in Spain, after nine years of a provisional Government (206-197), two provinces were in 197 definitely established, and each, like Sicily, assigned to one of the praetors for the year, two additional praetors being elected for the purpose. But here the resemblance between the two cases ends. From 201 down to the outbreak of the Slave War in 136 there was unbroken peace in Sicily, and its part in the history is limited to its important functions in supplying Rome with corn and in provisioning and clothing the Roman legions. The governors of the two Spains had very different work to do from that which fell to the lot of the Sicilian praetors. The condition of Spain required that year after year the praetors should be armed with the consular authority, and backed by a standing force of four legions, while more than once the presence of the consuls themselves was found necessary. Still, in spite of all difficulties, the work of pacification proceeded. To M. Porcius Cato (consul, 195) and to Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (praetor and pro-praetor, 180-179), father of the two tribunes, is mainly due the credit of quieting the Celtiberian tribes of central Spain, and the government of Gracchus was fol lowed by 3o years of comparative tranquillity. The insurrection headed by Viriathus in 149 was largely caused by exactions of the Roman magistrates themselves, while its obstinate continuance down to the capture of Numantia, in 133, was almost as much the result of the incapacity of the Roman commanders. But the re-settlement of the country by Scipio Africanus the younger in that year left all Spain, with the exception of the highland Astures and Cantabri in the north-west, finally and tranquilly subject to Rome.