Scandinavian Civilization

Later Bronze Period.

In this period cremation became gen eral. The burnt bones were at first put in small stone cists, a num ber being often found under one mound ; later the remains were placed in pottery urns, often still placed in cists ; sometimes they were simply laid in the ground and covered with a stone. The pottery was usually in the form of plain jars and bowls, some times handled. Tomb furniture, especially weapons, became scantier. There is no visible break with the earlier period in the type of weapons; but gradually a new type of decoration was em ployed, and new kinds of household objects, ornaments, etc., were introduced. These include ornamented bronze vessels of various forms, often for hanging; a new kind of knife (so-called razor) ; and many personal ornaments. These are decorated with repousse as well as with incised ornament, sometimes in the form of degenerate spirals, sometimes circles, and frequently wavy ribbon patterns and curves suggesting roughly drawn boats with bird's head terminals. Many of these were imported, being of Italian design; others are local imitations. The ornament is also foreign, being typical of the Hallstatt (earliest Iron Age) civiliza tion of central Europe. The sword pommels are also of Hallstatt types. This period, therefore, although definitely part of the Bronze Age, was strongly influenced by the Iron Age of central and southern Europe, being contemporary with the Hallstatt Period.

At the close of this period a few iron objects of La Tene type, such as swords and brooches, occur in cremation graves other wise indistinguishable from those of the Bronze Age, and represent the beginning of the use of iron in Scandinavia, probably dating in the first century or two B.C.

Rock Carvings.

On rocks in some districts of Sweden and Norway numerous crude carvings exist, representing scenes of fighting, husbandry, seafaring, etc. If, as most people believe, these belong to the Bronze Age, they throw a flood of light on the daily life of the time. But their dates are as yet unproved.

Although Scandinavia was always outside the Roman Empire the influence of that power was strongly shown in contemporary Scandinavian civilization. Very many objects of Roman manu facture were imported, often of good quality, showing that Scan dinavia was prosperous and traded freely with the continent. Large numbers of Roman coins have been found, especially in the island of Gotland. Native art shows strong Roman influence.

At this time iron was of course in general use. Much informa tion about the period is derived from hoards found in peat-bogs at Thorsbjerg, Vimose, Nydam and other sites in Jutland and Schleswig. These are supposed to be votive offerings following a battle. The weapons are remarkably fine, and include swords, single and double-edged, and damascened (the double-edged types having hilts resembling the Roman form) ; spears of various pat terns, ornamented and sometimes inlaid on the blade ; axes, socketed and perforated ; chain-mail ; helmets, one of silver ; and shield-bosses. Tools of all kinds were found ; also personal orna meats. Perhaps the most important find was that of a clinker-built

boat 75 ft. long, at Nydam, built of oak and probably dating in the III. century A.D. ; another of red pine was found.

Migration Period.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the west in the V. century A.D. Scandinavian civilization devel oped gradually in harmony with the Teutonic civilizations to the south of it and in England. Again little is known of the houses of the period; the majority seem to have been four-sided huts.

Burials are the chief source of information. Both inhumation and .

cremation were practised; the tomb furniture was rich, espe cially in personal ornaments and square-headed and cruciform brooches. These and other ornaments were decorated in a new style common to Scandinavia and the rest of Teutonic Europe at this period, consisting partly of geometric designs, spirals, stars, etc., and partly based on conventionalized and disinte grating animal forms, executed in a variety of techniques. The materials were sometimes bronze, occasionally silver and sometimes gold; the latter was most freely used in Sweden. In Gotland inlaid garnet ornament was popular, a technique which unlike the animal ornament occurs only sporadically in northern Europe. An ornament peculiar to Scandinavia was the bracteate, a disc-shaped gold pendant derived from barbarous copies of late Roman and Byzantine coins. The commonest weapons were the spear and shield. Swords, single and double edged, were not uncommon. Glass and wooden vessels as well as pottery are found.

Viking Period.

In the VIII. century the northern peoples, who had hitherto when restive contented themselves with local warfare and commercial ventures abroad, began to engage in piratical forays overseas. These were at first mere plundering raids resembling those of the Anglo-Saxons on the frontiers of the moribund Roman Empire in the HI. and IV. centuries; but (like these) led ultimately to wide-spread colonization in England, northern France, Ireland, Scotland, the Faroes, the Orkneys, Shetland, Sicily and Russia; and to the discovery of Iceland, Greenland and America and the colonization of the former. Their raids were pushed into almost every corner of Europe and they visited Asia Minor and North Africa.

We are fortunate in being able to examine in detail typical ves sels in which they adventured, owing to their custom of burying the dead in their ships, under barrows; and it is not an exaggera tion to say that all the finer developments of the sailing-ship were founded on their lines. A typical small war-vessel of the period was found at Gokstad, near Sandefjord in south Norway, and what might be described as a royal pleasure-vessel at Oseberg. Both contained a complete outfit; in the first were the chief's arms, horses, etc. ; in the second the queen's bed, sledges, vessels, ornaments, etc. Lest anyone should doubt the seaworthiness of these vessels an exact model of the Gokstad ship was built and sailed across the Atlantic in 1893 and afterwards shown at the Chicago exhibition; it proved an able sea-boat.