During these experiments and tests, conditions were standard ized ; and this led to a progressive development of the lathe itself and to many investigations which, though only incidental to the main purpose of the work, turned out to be highly important in themselves.
Leather Belting.—One of the by-product investigations is given in Taylor's classic paper on leather belting (Trans. A.S. of M.E.) which first gave engineers concrete, comprehensive and definite information as to just what a leather belt may be depended upon to do in power transmission. As a direct outcome of these experiments, lathes were largely re-designed. Cutting tools were given new shapes and standardized ; a new tool grinding machine was designed and, finally high-speed steel was invented by Taylor and Maunsel White. The first public exhibition of this new steel attracted much attention by turning forged steel at speeds suf ficient to heat the chips to a deep blue. This one result of Taylor's studies has very greatly increased the output per man in most machine shops.
Operations Standardized.—For many kinds of work, how ever, the cutting speed is not the only important element. The operations of placing and fastening the work in position, and adjusting the cutting tools properly are of equal importance. All such work and many varieties of purely manual operations were studied; and, by separating these operations into their elements and timing each element by means of stop watches, the best com binations were determined and so combined as to make the most efficient complete operation, which was usually not only faster but more easily performed because it was done with the minimum of muscular effort and nervous strain.
Use of Stop Watches.—In determining the best manner of performing a piece of work, many studies were made by men with stop-watches, which must never be used secretly but only with the full co-operation of the worker. The workers are not, however, to be driven to accomplish the operations, but each is carefully and patiently instructed ; being assured that, upon attaining a given degree of proficiency, he will be paid a premium, or bonus, the amount of which varies with the character of the work, but is always sufficient to be attractive. Besides higher wages and con tented workers, the results are lower labour costs and lower total costs of production, notwithstanding a possible higher ratio or proportion of what is variously called "overhead expense," "operating expense" or "operating cost." The New Plan of Management.—It became increasingly clear that maximum production could not be obtained until a sys tem of management based upon a new conception of its functions had been devised. Things which had been left to the workers or
to overburdened foremen should be attended to by others, preferably trained specialists. Tools and machines must be known to be ready for use when needed and in the best possible condi tion. Materials must always be on hand in the proper quantities; the successive operations and their proper sequence must be care fully planned by experts. Accompanying each shop order there should be full directions for executing it in accordance with the plan and within the predetermined time. A central planning department, in which all work is carefully laid out, is essential— usually expert workmen being trained for this work. Men with proper equipment move materials from one station to the next in accordance with directions ; and thus the stream of materials is changed from a large, slow-moving one to a much smaller stream moving steadily and rapidly Work spaces are much less con gested, and often very great savings are made in inventories of raw stock, and of parts "in process," thus freeing capital for some useful purpose. No expenditure need be made upon any job until the way is cleared for it to go through the works without delay, and without interference with or by any other work.
Functional Foremen.—It was early perceived that the work men could not be expected to go on doing work correctly if left to themselves or to the direction of a too-busy foreman, and so functional foremen were trained who issue directions for the execution of each component part of the work. It is made sure that these directions do reach the workers, that they understand them and that they are given all needed help in doing the work properly. For doing this, the worker receives, as a premium, an increase of pay which makes it worth his while to co-operate and follow instructions faithfully. In some cases the foremen may also receive a premium which is in proportion to the number of workers who attain the stipulated mark. The foremen cannot bring this about by mere driving, but only by giving genuine help and instruction. But the foreman must always recognize when teaching workers that he is dealing not with angels, nor yet with devils, but with human beings who have been previously trained at some expense and who should be presumed to wish to succeed and are nearly always willing to try if properly handled.