Byzantine silver of the 6th century is often marked with stamps in the manner of modern plate. St. Mark's in Venice contains many precious examples of Byzantine goldsmiths' work, including the famous Pala d'oro, fashioned in Constantinople in 976, and enlarged and modified later by Venetian and other goldsmiths. The monasteries of Mt. Athos are rich in early vessels.
Early goldsmiths' work of a sacred character comprises the 6th century gold cross of Justin II. and Sophia, in St. Peter's, Rome; three great altar-frontals; (a) that executed before 835 in S. Ambrogio, Milan; (b) that in Aix-la-Chapelle cathedral; (c. i000) ; and (c) that in the Cluny museum, Paris. To these may be added the Codex Aureus, and the ciborium of the Emperor Arnoulf, both at Munich. Early figures of the Virgin are two of the 11th century (with later additions) in Essen cathedral and another by a goldsmith of Hildesheim. The celebrated treatise of c. II oo by the monk Theophilus, of Essen, is of extraordinary interest in the history of metal working.
A highly-skilled school of metal workers and enamellers was established in the 12th and early 13th centuries on the Meuse, chief of whom was Nicholas of Verdun. By his pupil or follower, Hugo d'Oignies, are three authenticated works, including his masterpiece, the shrine of St. Eleutherius (1247) in Tournai cathedral (see Burlington Magazine, xxxv. ; xxxix.). By Sieg froid, pupil of Nicholas of Verdun, is a superb chalice of c. 123o, in Borga. church, Finland. Of the same school was Godefroid de Claire, goldsmith and enameller, of Huy.
English ecclesiastical work suffered incredible destruction at the Reformation. Of the few English silver chalices one of the earliest is that of the 13th century in the British Museum. Patens are more common. Important works are William of Wykeham's crozier at Oxford, and a censer and incense boat of c. 135o in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
The early examples of ecclesiastical work in France include the Gourdon gold chalice and paten of the 7th century ; a 9th century casket and a loth century statuette of St. Foy, at Conques; the cross of Laon, in the Louvre (c. 1200) ; an early 13th century ciborium in Sens cathedral; a cross of the same century in Amiens cathedral; the Virgin of the abbey of Ronce vaux, 14th century; and the Virgin in the Louvre The churches of Italy abound in sacred vessels, especially from the 14th century, the early works including the 12th century altar-frontal at Citta, di Castello; and the chalice of 1290 by Duccio of Siena. Famous among reliquaries is the bust of St.
Agatha at Catania, by Giovanni Bartolo, of Siena (1376). But more celebrated is the great reliquary of Orvieto, containing the blood-stained corporal of the Bolsena miracle, by Ugolino da Siena (c. 1338). Crosses include that of S. Giovanni, Florence, 1459, important for its influence upon others. Two great altar frontals are in the cathedral of Pistoia and in S. Giovanni at Florence. Upon the latter were employed several famous artists— Antonio Pollaiuolo, Michelozzo, Verrocchio and others. The Abruzzi's greatest goldsmith, Nicola da Guardiagreli, designed the altar-frontal of Teramo (1433-48). An example of the com bination of niello, enamel and silver, is the celebrated pax by Maso Finiguerra at Florence (1452). The most celebrated work of Valerio Belli (1468-1546), carver of crystal and medallist, is the crystal casket of 1532 in the Pitti palace, Florence. Cara dosso, famous as a goldsmith and medallist, was the maker of a gem-set golden tiara for Julius II., known from an old coloured drawing in the British Museum, with a drawing of the gold morse executed by Cellini for Clement VII.
The early goldsmiths' work of Spain was of considerable im portance. The Cross of the Angels, made in Asturias in the time of Alfonso II., and the Cross of Victory (9o8), both at Oviedo, are well-known. Chalices and other sacred vessels of unsurpassed richness were made in the Gothic and Renaissance periods. Under the sway of three members of the Arfe family in the 16th century several cathedrals were enriched with costly custodias (mon strances), great tower-like structures peculiar to Spain.
Early chalices were of two types with or without two handles; both lasted until the 13th century, when the two-handled form would seem to have been no longer made. The goldsmiths of the Merovingian period (42o-751) were highly skilled and produced great quantities of jewellery and plate. The Carolingian period brought a new style into the West. It used figure sub jects in relief and foliated ornament, adopted from the Christian East through Italy.