SMOKE : IN WARFARE. The first historical reference to the use of smoke in war, was the miracle whereby the Israelites were protected during their march from Egypt to the Promised Land (Exod. xiv. 19). In this old Biblical story of the Israelites lies the whole essence of the use of smoke in war—the blinding of one's enemy. In the civil wars of the Roman empire both Caesar and Pompey used smoke as a weapon of attack, chiefly in landing operations.
Examples from History.—There appears to be little or no mention of the use of smoke for many centuries after this, but we find an instance in the 17th, when in 1632 Gustavus covered his crossing of the Lech in face of Tilly by a smoke screen created by setting fire to wet straw, and another when on July 2, 1667, the Dutch fleet appeared off Landguard (near Harwich) and its ships took up their position to bombard it from all sides at once. Some of them were placed exactly to windward so that the smoke of their guns swept along the beach, and so covered the landing of their troops from the sight of the mariners in the fort.
In the battle of Seneff in 1674 smoke was used by the French when, as a strategem to cover their retirement, they hung up their lighted "matches" in the hedges. In i77o Charles XII. of Sweden used smoke in the crossing of the Dvina in his campaign against the Saxons. On this occasion specially constructed barges carrying tar barrels were used.
The Waterloo campaign had a great effect on the use of smoke in war, as it was realized at this time to what an enormous disad vantage the defence were put by the use of the black powder, which wrapt them in clouds of smoke, but it was not till 1885 that the introduction of smokeless powder was brought about by the French. Domokos, in the Turko-Greek war of 1897 was the last battle fought in Europe with smoke powder, and it is a remark able fact that it was not till 1915—nearly 20 years later—that a means was devised of projecting smoke on an enemy on the battlefield.
An experiment in covering the attacking troops by throwing forward smoke candles, such as were used for testing drains, was tried at Aldershot before the South African war and was rightly condemned, as the whole essence of the success in the use of smoke is the element of surprise and the blinding of the defenders by the attackers which can be done by smoke projection. No mention of the use of smoke is made in the histories of the South African and Russo-Japanese wars, though the Boers on occasions lit veldt fires to cover their withdrawal.
The World War.—The first instance of the use of smoke in the World War was probably the lighting of a haystack north of the La Bassee canal in October 1914, which enabled a company of the Devonshire Regiment to be withdrawn. Shortly after this a bat
tery of artillery, in somewhat like manner, made good its with drawal. At Loos in September 1915 smoke was wrongly used as a blind by lighting candles in British trenches, and thus brought down heavy shell fire. From this battle may be dated the realiza tion of the necessity of the projection of smoke and its use in attack, and danger to any defence By November 1916 smoke shells were in use in some divisions in France, but it was not, however, until the battles of Arras, 1917, when they were used by the 9th (British) Division that the art of accurately projecting smoke shells, and their great value, came to be appreciated. Many instances in 1917 and 1918 are on record when numbers of lives were saved by the invention of smoke shell, and when victories were gained with a minimum of casualties by the use of smoke. The Germans quickly copied the British, and used it in their offensive of March 1918, while the Australians used it to cover their withdrawal over the Piave in May 1918. The navy used smoke with conspicuous success at Zeebrugge on St. George's day, 1917, when fast coastal motor-boats greatly assisted the blocking operations by blinding the enemy's observation and shore guns.
Smoke, which may be used in war by artillery, infantry, aircraft and tanks, has certain inherent disadvantages, in particular the blinding of observation, and the variability of wind—the latter is a serious difficulty—but by practice all difficulties can be over come, and the experience of the World War proved that the ad vantages created by the use of smoke far outweigh the disadvan tages. It may be said of smoke that, if properly used, it will on almost every occasion in the attack, and also in the withdrawal, save many casualties. By its use the utmost is made of "fire power" and man power is concealed until the decisive stages. In filtration—an art in war—is facilitated and losses are greatly re duced through the use of cover by ground and cover by smoke. The chief object in the use of smoke-tactics, is, as far as possible, to impose on the defenders the conditions of night, while the at tackers have the conditions of day, and thereby effect surprise and reduce casualties. To summarize the use of smoke in war it may be said that it is used to obtain concealment of movement which begets surprise. (P. R. W.)