Solomon

The King.—The general impression which the Biblical narra tives seek to convey is that Solomon's reign was most prosperous and peaceful. Nor can it be denied that this impression has sub stantial evidence in its favour. To take one simple point, the fact that the reign of Solomon endured for forty years shows that he must have consolidated firmly the kingdom he inherited, though he had no great love for military adventure and made no attempt to enlarge its borders. Rather he sought to make his position secure by allying himself with his more considerable neighbours. Early in his reign he ensured the friendship of Egypt by espousing the Pharaoh's daughter. This alliance brought about also a further gain, for the Pharaoh, who had attacked and re duced the important Canaanite fortress Gezer, handed it over to Solomon as a dowry for his daughter, and Solomon rebuilt it. Perhaps even more advantageous was the extension of the alliance which David had earlier concluded with Hiram, the ruler of Tyre. This afforded Solomon security on his northern frontier, and enabled him to use freely the Mediterranean Sea. The erection of high places near Jerusalem for the worship of the deities of Zidon, Moab, and Ammon (2 Kings xxiii. 13) is indicative of friendly relations with those peoples. That he was able to use a port at the head of the Gulf of Akaba (i Kings ix. 26) for commerce with Ophir implies that Solomon controlled Edomite territory on his southeast border.

The commercial activity of Solomon seems to have been ex tensive. In this respect he reminds us of the Pharaohs, who appear almost to have monopolized the foreign commerce of Egypt. His imports were on a scale so lavish that he is said to have made silver as common as stones, cedars as sycamores, in Jerusalem. There was an extensive trade in horses (r Kings x. 27-29). In partnership with Hiram of Tyre he maintained a fleet of ocean going ships trading at regular intervals to Mediterranean ports, bringing "gold, silver, ivory, apes and peacocks" (1 Kings x. 22). In his trading ventures down the Gulf of Akaba he was assisted by skilled Tyrian navigators supplied by Hiram (I Kings ix. 27– 28)—his own people never did take kindly to the sea. This passage was evidently misunderstood by the Chronicler, who took it to mean that Hiram supplied the ships (2 Chronicles viii. 18) : how they were transported is a problem he leaves unexplained.

Ophir, the land to which these vessels ventured is not identified with certainty, but may be S. Arabia. Solomon brought Israel for the first time fully into the current of oriental commerce and civilization, and during his reign Jerusalem, at any rate, was a city of wealth and luxury.

The Builder.—The long and peaceful reign of Solomon per mitted him to indulge his passion for building, and his activities completely transformed his capital city, Jerusalem. David had built a palace there, being furnished with artificers and material by Hiram. This was, however, not regarded by Solomon as suf ficiently splendid, and he spent thirteen years in constructing a magnificent royal dwelling. He built also a temple, the details of which occupy a disproportionate space in the records, for it was, after all, in the nature of an appanage to the palace, and took little more than half the time devoted to the latter. Like his father, he relied largely upon Hiram for material and artisans.

Round his new buildings he erected a wall. He also built and fortified numerous cities which were used as barracks, arsenals and storehouses.

In order to obtain supplies for his grandiose schemes he divided the land into twelve districts, seemingly independent of the old tribal divisions, upon which levies were made in rotation. Forced

labour was exacted from the Canaanites. But though the boast is made that the Israelites were not treated as "bond-servants," the exactions made from them for the upkeep of the costly court and harem, and the expenses of building, must have reduced many of the poorer people to a condition hard to distinguish from slav ery. However splendid the court and capital may have been, the state of the ordinary folk must have been far from happy, and in the lavish expenditure of Solomon may be found a prime cause of the discontent which led under his successor to the division of the kingdom.

Factors of Unrest.

Nor was the political situation quite as easy as the picture in Kings might lead us to suppose. The exact interpretation of I Kings ix. 12-14 is uncertain, but evidently Solomon was compelled to part with territory in the north to placate Hiram. An Edomite, Hadad, who had escaped the ruth less slaughter of Edomites by Joab under David, took refuge at the Egyptian court, where he attained a considerable position. He returned to his native country after the death of Joab, and evidently was a thorn in Solomon's side (i Kings xi. 25). Rezon, an Aramean, too, established himself in Damascus, and was "an adversary to Israel all the days of Solomon." And, though the attempt of the able Jeroboam at revolt was crushed by the king so that he was compelled to seek asylum in Egypt, he had estab lished a sufficient personal ascendancy to gain the allegiance of the northern tribes after Solomon's death. Undoubtedly the shadows have been toned down in the Old Testament records of Solomon's reign. This does not, however, prevent us from rec ognizing that he was, with all his limitations, an able ruler. Though very little of the "wisdom" which is attributed to him in the Old Testament is correctly assigned, it is extremely unlikely that the attribution would have been made had not the facts of his ruler ship provided a basis for the picture of "Solomon the Wise." Religion.—Solomon was a sincere worshipper of Yahweh, more cultured but less passionate in his devotion than David. His erec tion of altars to foreign deities for the sake of his foreign wives, and even his participation in the rites connected with them, would not be in his eyes apostasy from Yahweh. These things were of the political rather than the religious sphere. But in the eyes of later puritans they were departures from orthodoxy. So we have the curious double picture of Solomon as on the one hand a most pious benefactor to the national religion in his building of the temple and care for its ceremonial—though even here the doubt insinuates itself as to whether he did not consider to some extent the prestige which was reflected on himself ; on the other hand as an apostate, who when his obituary notice is written (r Kings xi. 43) receives no glowing testimonial, and about whom it is said chat he "went not fully after Yahweh, as did David his father" (1 Kings xi. 6). Yet even the passage which contains this censure shows that the other side of the picture was not forgotten, be cause it represents with more charity than truth the participation of Solomon in the rites of foreign altars as a lapse of his old age (I Kings xi. 4).

For Mohammedan and other stories of Solomon, the queen of Sheba, etc., see Salzberger, Die Salomo-Sage in der Semitischen Literatur (19o7). (W. L. W.)