. A series of brilliant Swedish successes followed. Gustavus Adolphus held his Court in Mainz and Frankfurt, crossed the River Lech and made his entry into Munich. The emperor had dismissed Wallenstein in 1630, but now took him back into favour, and soon the latter was once again in the field with a strong army. The Swedes vainly stormed his fortified camp at Nuremberg and the brisk war which ensued led to the battle of Liitzen in which Gustavus Adolphus met his death on Nov. 6, 1632.
It may be thought a matter for wonder that Sweden, a country with a population relatively so small, should have been capable of so great a political and military expansion as was shown in the Thirty Years' War. The explanation lies partly in an extraordi nary national effort to avert an imminent danger. Sweden's armies were made up also in an increasing degree of foreign mercenaries, German, English, and Dutch. In the Polish war a number of excellent Swedish generals had learnt their business, and Gustavus Adolphus was one of the foremost military leaders of the time.
Christina.—The death of Gustavus Adolphus produced a crisis in Germany. His daughter Christina, still a minor, was recognized as queen (1632-54) and the Regency was undertaken by Axel Oxenstierna. It was well that a new treaty was concluded with France in 1633 and that Wallenstein was murdered in Feb. 1634, but in the autumn the Swedes suffered a defeat at Nordlingen which lowered their prestige. In 1635 Saxony concluded peace with the emperor and her example was followed by Brandenburg in 1636; both declared war against Sweden. John Baner (q.v.), restored the good name of the Swedish troops by victories at Wittstock in 1636 and Chemnitz in 1639. His successor, Tor stensson (q.v.), thrice invaded the emperor's dominions and won the second battle of Breitenfeld in 1642. Almost every where Swedish interests were opposed by Denmark. Thus Torstensson was ordered, therefore, to leave Bohemia for Den mark in 2643, and Jutland was overrun by Swedish troops. Christian IV. was forced to conclude a peace at Bromesbro in 1645 by which Sweden won Jamtland, Harjedalen, Gottland, Osel and, for 3o years Halland; exemption from the Oresund tolls was accorded for goods to Sweden and the Baltic provinces. By the Treaty of Westphalia (q.v.) Sweden acquired important German possessions—large portions of Pomerania, Wismar, the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden as fiefs of the German empire, and sums of prize-money, rewards for the soldiers. A great number of Swedes had in the course of the war amassed large fortunes; the influence of the nobles in this way had been increased and a chasm had grown between them and the unprivileged classes. This was intensified by the circumstance that many foreigners had entered into Swedish service and had been rewarded with landed estates. Through them, and through the impressions which Swedes had gathered in foreign countries, new ideas regarding the social status of the nobles had become widely prevalent.
The exercise of governmental power and the administration of the State in general were regulated by the constitution of the year 1634. Christina came of age in 1644, but laid down the crown ten years later. Richly endowed by nature, she had acquired much
learning and many accomplishments but she was flighty and arbitrary, wont to overload with gifts those who were momentarily in her favour. She went over to the Catholic Church and died in Rome in 1689 after a life not lacking in excitement.
Charles X.'s short reign was occupied by war. With Poland there was as yet no peace; as the Russians had directed an attack against Poland, the king and the Riksdag decided to settle the matter by means of a war. Charles X. took Warsaw and Cracow (1655). Poland looked as though lost, but a national rising fol lowed in favour of King John Casimir and two years of fruitless fighting resulted. Charles X. concluded peace with the rising power, Brandenburg, and the Swedish and Brandenburgian armies together won a three days' battle at Warsaw in 1656. In that year the Russians began war and the emperor joined Sweden's enemies, and the following year Denmark, Holland and Brandenburg fol lowed suit. If all these powers could have co-operated closely Sweden's position would have been extremely perilous, but they could not. Charles turned resolutely upon Denmark, took Jut land and led his troops first over the ice to Fyen and then across the islands to Sjalland. The credit of this military exploit belongs chiefly to the quartermaster general of the army, Erik Dahlberg. Denmark was forced to make peace in 1658 at Roskilde, Sweden receiving Skane, Halland, Blekinge and Bornholm, Bohuslan and Trondhjems Lan. Both kingdoms undertook to make common cause to keep enemy fleets out of the Sound. The king now thought of confronting his other enemies, but as certain negotia tions with Denmark did not quite take the turn he expected and the Dutch were busily agitating in Denmark, he guessed that hostilities from this country would follow the moment he had become engaged in the east. He resolved to avoid this danger by completely crushing Denmark and began war anew in Aug. 1658. His policy, however failed, as in Poland, through a contingency with which the statesmen of those days seldom reckoned—the kindling of a national patriotic movement. Copenhagen withstood his attack and Holland sent a fleet which after a fierce struggle with the Swedes relieved the Danish capital. The situation was anxious, and a Riksdag was called together at Goteborg. Charles Gustavus died on Feb. 13, 1660 during its session.