Superstition

A good example is furnished by rest-days. The whole experi ence of mankind proves that it is advantageous to have occasional periods in which no avoidable work is done, since in the end the worker actually achieves more than if he had not rested, in addi tion to tiring himself much less ; and for this there are sound physiological and psychological reasons. Moreover, it is the per fectly reasonable practice of members of the higher religions, such as Christianity and Islam, to set apart certain days (Sunday, Fri day, etc.) for the intensified practice of their worship. But it is well known that, long before either an ethical religion appeared or the physiology of fatigue was studied, tabu-days, like the gennas of the Nagas, were observed by people in a savage or barbarous stage of culture, owing to the belief that, at regular or irregular intervals, the prevailing conditions were so magical that ordinary work would be unlucky or would prevent or hinder the beneficent effect to be expected from these conditions. Now the feeling that on certain days certain occupations, or all ordinary occupations, are particularly unlucky (or lucky) is quite common at far higher stages than these. Those who appear seriously to believe in the unluckiness of Friday for starting any work may rightly be called superstitious, for the ground of their conduct is ultimately the savage notion of the incompatibility of ordinary occupations with the spiritual atmosphere, so to call it, of a tabu-day, in this case a Church fast-day of comparatively modern origin. Not dissimilar considerations apply to the quite wide-spread avoidance of the number thirteen, ultimately based upon very ancient ideas of the peculiar character of this number.

Accretions.

Evidence of the survival, among a civilized pop ulation, of a savage type of mentality is furnished abundantly by the occurrence of quite new superstitious practices in our own day and in circles, not always uncultured, of Europeans and Americans. It is of course a commonplace that gamblers are superstitious, and many of their practices may fairly be deemed survivals, such as turning a chair around to "change the luck" (imitative or homoeopathic magic) or wearing a mascot (fetish ism?). But examples are not wanting of entirely new beliefs, based upon modern conditions and having no near parallel in savage or ancient custom. A popular English newspaper finds it necessary, owing to its large circulation, to employ a number of presses. In order to check, and, where necessary, correct the work done by each of these, it has its title printed in a slightly different manner by each machine, the difference consisting of a varying number of small white dots in the large black lettering.

A few years ago a firm belief grew up among its less instructed readers that these dots conveyed racing "tips"; thus, if there were three dots in the letter D, they signified that in the third race of that day a horse whose name began with D was the likely winner.

Here we have a definitely superstitious belief, although con nected witl- no magical or religious idea, old or new. Clearly such a delusion would have been impossible but for two factors : (I) Instead of rationally crediting the paper with the possession of a good deal of information on various subjects, gathered through reporters and by other such means, these readers manifestly sup posed it to have a quasi-omniscience, embracing such unknowable things as the result of a race not yet run. (2) Whereas it is in

fact the custom of newspapers to state in plain language, in their sporting columns, which horse they think likeliest to win a given race, it seems to have been vaguely felt that it was more in keep ing with the supposed oracular and infallible wisdom of the Press to adopt a symbolic style and set forth valuable information in a riddling form.

The above example throws some light on the question whether superstition is declining in modern civilizations. The statement that it is rapidly disappearing is often and confidently made ; but on examination of the instances given in support of such asser tions, it will be found that what are really disappearing are cer tain old and traditional forms of belief or custom, which have rather gone out of fashion than been overcome by reason. For example, in Britain and America very little is left of the old rites connected with the last sheaf. This is only partly due to the spread of education among country people; probably not many farm labourers could say either what the old rites were or why they were irrational; it is rather the result of the rapid drift of popu lation towards industrial centres, and the consequent influence on the country of town ideas. Now the townsman, not being a pro ducer of foodstuffs from the soil, is apt to laugh at the customs connected with them as rustic ; compare the contemptuous tone of such words as rustre, rusticus, boor, aypotKos, etc. The irrational custom has been irrationally displaced. Here, therefore, is no evidence of the growth of a more logical and critical mentality, less prone than the old to superstition; and it has already been shown that superstitious beliefs are actually in process of crea tion in the towns themselves. To take another example ; while the traditional belief in witches seems practically confined to a few country districts and small towns, and the old methods of divination hardly survive at all, save as amusements, fortune telling by various methods, mostly pseudo-scientific, including a crude and degraded form of astrology, is by no means extinct, as may be seen by examining the advertisements of popular magazines and also the police-court reports. At best it may be said that superstition appears to be yielding, although very slowly, to the gradual rise of the average intelligence which there is some reason to suppose exists, and that it may in time disappear with other irrationalities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—For classical superstitions, see art. ABERGLAUBE in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopiidie. For others, see ANTHROPOLOGY, FOLKLORE, bibliography.

See also Lehmann, Aberglaube and Zauberei (1898) ; A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart (i9oo) ; Philip F. Water man, The Story of Superstition (1929). (H. J. R.) A British tax imposed by the Finance Act of 1909 in which D. Lloyd George made a further graduation of the existing income tax by imposing a supplementary income tax or "super-tax" upon persons whose incomes exceeded is,000 a year. This tax was not imposed upon the whole of the income but upon such part of it as exceeded £3,000 a year, thus creating a gradu ated super-tax. In later years this super-tax was amended again and again, and in 1928 was renamed the surtax, the name already in use in the United States. (See INcoME TAx: IN PRACTICE.)