Sword

Modern Swords.

The present military swords are descended from the straight "back-sword" and the Eastern scimitar or talwar. The difference between the curved "sabre" and straight "sword" has been preserved in some languages (e.g., in German, Degen stands for the straight, and Siibel for the curved, sword), though in English the single word "sword" covers both varieties. The shape of the sword has va ried considerably at different times; this is due to the fact that it is practically impossible to de cide by trial whether a straight or a curved sword is the better under all circumstances. The trooper can use his sword in three different ways—to cut, to guard and to point ; and his suc cess depends upon the training of his horse, his skill in horseman: ship, and, above all, upon the dexterity and methods of his ad versary. The result is that changes have often been made in cavalry armament under the er roneous impression that the arm used has been the main cause of success. The Ottoman cavalry up to the end of the i8th century was regarded as one of the best in Europe. The curved European cavalry sabre so long in use may undoubtedly be traced to this cause, the superiority of the Turks being put down to their curved scimitars, though horsemanship and dash were really the dominat ing factors.

The shape of the sword to be chosen depends obviously on the purpose for which it is mainly intended. In this much-debated matter the facts appear to be as follows : A determined thrust, especially when delivered by a horseman at full speed, is difficult to parry : if it gets home, it will probably kill the recipient outright or disable him for the rest of the campaign. That this is the case is borne out by the very large proportion of killed as compared with wounded in the British cavalry when engaged with that of the French in the Peninsular War, the French making much use of the point, and their heavy cavalry being armed with a long straight sword. On the other hand, to deliver a bold thrust, while disregarding the uplifted sword of the adversary, and leaving one's own body and head open to an impending blow, demands complete confidence that the thrust will get home before the blow can descend. Such confidence can only be the fruit of long train ing, especially as it is the natural tendency of all men to cut when excited; therefore, in view of the excitement of the melee, it is considered by many unwise to adopt a sword with which a powerful cut cannot be delivered as well as an effective thrust. The swords adopted by most nations in recent times have repre sented a compromise. They have blades which are nearly straight, but of sufficient weight towards their points to enable an efficient cut to be delivered with them. France, however, in 1898 decided on a long straight sword designed wholly for thrusting prac tically identical with that which was in use about a century ago. The following year Great Britain introduced a slightly curved weapon, but in 1908 a new sword was adopted which has a long straight blade and is intended to be used chiefly for thrust ing.

BIBLIOGRAPEIY.-Archaeology

and General History: J. Naue, Die Vorramischen Schwerter aus Kupper, Bronze und Eisen, a standard work for the prehistoric periods (with map of illustrations, Munich, 1903) ; R. Forrer, "Der Werdegang von Dolch und Schwert," introduc tion to Die Schwerter und Schwertknaufe der Sammlung Carl von Schwerzenbach the best monograph (Leipzig, 19os). Neither of these authors has been able to use the Cretan materials. See also R. F. Bur

ton, The Book of the Sword (1884).

Special Regions and Periods: For the overlapping of the bronze and iron age in the Homeric poems see R. M. Burrows, The Discoveries in Crete, p. 214 (19o7). As to Britain, see H. S. Cowper, The Art of Attack (Ulverston, 1906) ; and 0. Montelius, "Chronology of the Brit ish Bronze Age" in Archaeologia, vol. lxi., pp. 155-6 (1909). For the substitution of bronze for copper, c. 2000 B.C., and the transition from bronze to iron, c. 1000-70o B.c.—by importation, it seems, from West ern Asia, the Asiatic origin being at least a century earlier—see H. Peake, The Bronze Age and the Celtic World (1922). For early Minoan bronze daggers see J. Hazzidakis, "An Early Minoan Sacred Cave at Arkalokhori in Crete" in the Annals of the British School at Athens, vol. xix., p. 44 (1912-13). The development from Mediter ranean copper and bronze daggers under northern influence is stated by Peake, from c. 150o B.C., op. cit., p. 81; and in more detail by W. Parker Brewis, "The Bronze Sword in Great Britain" in Archaeologia, vol. lxxiii., p. 253 (1923). For the Iberian sword, see S. Rinach, "L'epee de Brennus" in Cultes, mythes, et religions, vol. iii., p. 542 (1905-08) ; and H. Sanders, "Weapons of the Iberians" in Archae ologia, vol. lxiv., p. 262 (1913). As the spear still was in historical times, see A. Furtwaengler and E. Reichhold, Griechische Vasenmalerei Ser. iii., p. 122 (Munich, 191o). For scimitars, etc., see Col. Belaiew, "The Russian contribution to the metallurgy of steel" in the Journal of the Roy. Soc. of Arts (Nov. 4, 1921) ; as to the history of the "machaira" type in Europe see H. Sanders, op. cit. Por hand-weapons of the Indo-Chinese and Malay types (few of which can be properly described as swords) , see Smithsonian Institution, U.S. National Museum, Bulletin No. 137: The Collection of Primitive Weapons and Armor of the Philippine Islands in the U.S. National Museum (Wash ington, 1926). See also J. Drummond and J. Anderson, Ancient Scot tish Weapons (1881).

Armour: The general treatises and handbooks on arms and armour, such as Grose, Meyrick, Hewitt, Lacombe, and Demmin, may be con sulted with advantage, but with caution in details. The same may be said of published catalogues of museums and collections. The following works are trustworthy: W. Boeheim, Handbuch der Waffenkunde (Leipzig, 1900) ; T. Lindenschmit, Tracht and Bewaffnung des rdm ischen Heeres wiihrend der Kaiserzeit (Brunswick, 5882) ; Lord Eger ton of Tatton, Indian and Oriental Armour (1896) ; R. C. Clephan, The Defensive Armour and the Weapons and the Engines of War of Mediaeval Times and the Renaissance (Iwo) ; C. H. Ashdown, British and Foreign Arms and Armour (19o9) ; Sir Guy Laking, The Armoury of Windsor Castle (1904), and Record of European: Arms and Armour (192o-22).

Swordsmanship: Egerton Castle, Schools and Masters of Fence from the Middle Ages to the Eighteenth Century (with a critical bibl., 1892) ; C. A. Thimm, Bibliography of Fencing and Duelling (5896).

Technology: H. Williamson, Engines of War (1841) ; G. S. Marey Monge, Memoire sur ks armes blanches (Strassburg, 1841; trans. by Lt.-Col. Maxwell, 186o). For the technique of Japanese swords, see A. Dobree, "Japanese Sword Blades" in the Archaeological Journal, vol. lxii., pp. 1-18 and pp. 218-255 (1905) ; and for the export of European blades to India see Lord Dillon, ibid., p. 67 and pp. 69-72.