Writing.—As to the antiquity of the art of writing among the Teutonic peoples, Tacitus says that certain marks were inscribed on the divining chips, but it is not known whether these were really letters or not. The national type of writing, generally known as Runic, must have been fully developed by the 4th century, when some of its letters were borrowed by Ulfilas (Wulfila) for his new alphabet. (See RUNES.) Indeed, by this time it was probably known to most of the Teutonic peoples, for several of the inscriptions found in Jutland and the islands of the Belt can hardly be of later date. The Roman alphabet first came into use among the western and northern Teutonic peoples after their adoption of Christianity.
Funeral Customs.—Icelandic writers of the 12th and i3th centuries distinguished between an earlier "age of burning" and a later "age of barrows," and the investigations of modern archaeologists in general confirm the distinction, though they have revealed also the burial-places of times antecedent to the age of burning. Throughout the stone age inhumation appears to have been universal, many of the neolithic tombs being chambers of considerable size and constructed with massive blocks of stone. Cremation makes its appearance first in the middle bronze age and, at a later period, in the late bronze age practically displaces the older rite. Although the earliest of the ensuing epoch graves in Gotland contain inhumed remains, crema tion is practically the universal rite in the early iron age.
The latter practice is the one recognized by Tacitus. In the national migration period, however, it fell into disuse among most of the continental Teutonic peoples, even before their conversion, though practised by the Heruli in the 5th century and by the Old Saxons probably till much later. It came into Britain with the Anglo-Saxon invaders and continued in use in certain districts perhaps until nearly the close of the 6th century. In Scandi navian lands the change noted by Icelandic writers may be dated about the 5th and 6th centuries, though inhumation was certainly known before that time. After the 6th century cremation seems not to have been common, if we may trust the sagas, but isolated instances occur as late as the loth century. Cremation and the use of the barrow are not mutually exclusive, for cremated re mains, generally in urns, are often found in barrows.
On the other hand inhumation below the surface of the ground, without perceptible trace of a barrow, seems to have been the most usual practice during the national migration period, both in England and on the continent. A special form of funeral rite
peculiar to the North was that of cremation on a ship. Generally the ship was drawn up on land ; but occasionally legendary sagas tell of the burning ship being sent out to sea. Large ships con taining human remains have been found in barrows of the viking age. Arms and ornaments are frequently met with, sometimes also horses and human remains which may be those of slaves.
Religion.—The conversion of the Teutonic peoples to Christi anity covered some seven centuries. The Goths accepted the new religion about the middle of the 4th century, and the Vandals followed their example very quickly. In the course of the 5th century it spread to several other nations, including the Gepidae, Burgundians, Rugii and Langobardi. In all these cases the Arian form of Christianity was the one first adopted. The Franks were converted to the Catholic form at the end of the 5th century. The extension of Frankish supremacy over the neighbouring Teutonic peoples brought about the adoption of Christianity by them also, partly under compulsion, the last to be converted being the Old Saxons, in the latter half of the 8th century. The conversion of England began in 597 and was com plete in less than a century. In the north, after several attempts during the 9th century which met with only temporary success, Christianity was established in Denmark under Harold Bluetooth, about 94o-960, and in Norway and Sweden before the end of the century, while in Iceland it obtained public recognition in the year i000. Many districts in Norway, however, remained heathen until the reign of St. Olaf (1014-1028), and in Sweden for half a century later.
Our knowledge of the beliefs and forms of worship which pre vailed before the adoption of Christianity, is due chiefly to Ice landic literary men of the 12th and 13th centuries, who gave accounts of many legends which had come down to them by oral tradition, besides committing to writing a number of ancient poems. Icelandic history is unique in this respect. In the literatures of other Teutonic countries we have only occasional references to the religious rites of heathen times, and these are generally in no way comparable to the detailed accounts given in Icelandic writings. Hence it is often difficult to decide whether a given rite or legend which is mentioned only in Icelandic litera ture was really peculiar to that country alone or to the North generally, or was once common to all Teutonic peoples.