The Spanish nation, deprived of its kings and former states men and even of the support of a large part of the higher nobil ity, sought to build up a provisional political organization based on the old provincial and regional committees (juntas). It was a remarkable effort, and in spite of its many defects the admira ble bourgeoisie and the provincial yeomanry succeeded in creat ing a system which proved capable of resisting French domina tion. The military superiority of the French was so great that an immediate victory was impossible; but Napoleon himself was compelled to come to Spain to direct operations. In less than a week the Spanish army was broken through and scattered, and Napoleon restored his brother in Madrid. Sir John Moore, who had advanced with an English army to the relief of the capital, retired when he found he was too late, and an obstinate battle, in which the gallant general lost his life, had to be fought before the troops could secure their embarkation at Corunna. Napoleon, thinking the work accomplished, had quitted the peninsula, and Soult and Victor were left to complete the reduction of the provinces. The capture of Seville resulted in the dissolution of the central junta, but the patriots took refuge in Cadiz, which became the capital of independent Spain. The peninsula was only saved from final submission by the obstinate resistance of Well ington in Portugal, the heroic conduct of many Spanish towns, such as Saragossa and Gerona, the continuous activity of the guerrillas, and by dissensions among the French.
The Cortes of 1810 and the Constitution of 1812.—The Spanish cortes had never been so entirely suspended as the States-General of France. They had been encouraged to a certain extent during the 18th century to play a more important political role. The reformist patriots of Cadiz, influenced by the ideas of revolutionary France, then conceived the plan of re-establishing the old Spanish parliaments on a more democratic and national basis. In 1810 the new cortes in which the colonies were repre sented was convened. The third estate of the commons secured 184 representatives, who were sufficient to swamp the nobles and the clergy. In theory the members of the third estate had been chosen by a process of double election. In fact, however, since much of the country was held by the French, they were often re turned by such natives of the regions so occupied as happened to be present in Cadiz at the time. The suppression of the In quisition and other measures relating to the privileges of the Church and the aristocracy passed together with much else. But even before the new constitution was published and sworn, on March 19, 1812, large numbers of Spaniards had made up their minds that after the invaders were driven out the cortes must be suppressed.
Expulsion of the French.—Spain, in achieving her liberation from the military domination of France, owed very much to the assistance of Great Britain (see PENINSULAR WAR). In 1812 Wellington determined on a great effort. He secured his base of operations by the capture of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, and at Salamanca he completely routed the opposing army of Mar mont. This victory enabled the English general to enter Madrid (Aug. 12), and Joseph retreated to Valencia. But further ad vance was prevented by the concentration of the French forces in the east, and Wellington found it advisable to retire for the third time to winter quarters on the Portuguese frontier. It was during this winter that Napoleon suffered his first and greatest reverse in the retreat from Moscow and the destruction of his grand army. The "war of liberation" in Germany followed, and
French troops had to be withdrawn from Spain to central Europe. For the first time Wellington found himself opposed by fairly equal forces. In the spring of 1813 he advanced from Ciudad Rodrigo and defeated Jourdan at Vittoria, the battle which finally decided the Peninsular War. Joseph retired altogether from his kingdom, and Wellington, eager to take his part in the great European contest, fought his way through the Pyrenees into France. Napoleon, who had suffered a crushing defeat at Leipzig, hastened to recognize the impossibility of retaining Spain by re leasing Ferdinand VII., who returned to Madrid in March Restoration of Ferdinand VII.—Bef ore entering Spain Ferdinand had undertaken to maintain the constitution of 1812, and when on March 22, 1814 he reached Figueras, he was met by a demand on the part of the cortes that he must accept all the terms of the constitution as a condition of his recognition as a king. But Ferdinand had convincing proof of the true temper of the nation. He refused to recognize the constitution, and was supported in his refusal not only by the army and the Church, but by the masses. There can be no doubt that Ferdinand VII. could have ruled despotically if he had been able to govern well. But, although possessed of some sardonic humour and a large measure of cunning, he was base, and had no real capacity. He changed his ministers incessantly, and on mere caprice. Governed by a camarilla of low favourites, he was by nature cruel as well as cowardly, and the persecution of the "liberales" was ferocious.
Revolution of 1820.—Partial revolts took place, but were easily crushed. The revolt which overpowered him in 182o began by a military mutiny. During the war the American colonies had rebelled, and soldiers had been sent to suppress them. No progress had been made, the service was dreadfully costly in life, and it became intensely unpopular among the troops. Meanwhile the brutality of the king and his ministers had begun to produce a reaction. Not a few of the officers held Liberal opinions, espe cially those who had been prisoners in France during the war and had been inoculated with foreign doctrines. These men, of whom the most conspicuous was Colonel Rafael Riego, worked on the discontent of the soldiers, and in Jan. 1820 brought about a mutiny at Cadiz, which became a revolution. Until 1823 the king was a prisoner in the hands of a section df his subjects, who restored the constitution of 1812 and had the support of the army. But the Liberals were divided into sub-sections ; any sign of moderation on the part of the ministers chosen from one of them was enough to secure him the name of "Servile" from the others. The "Serviles" or absolutists proper took up arms in the north. Ferdinand appealed for help to the monarchies of the Holy Alli ance. As early as 182o the Emperor Alexander I. of Russia had suggested a joint intervention of the powers of the Grand Alli ance to restore order in the peninsula, and had offered to place his own army at their disposal for the purpose. The project had come to nothing owing to the opposition of the British Government and the strenuous objection of Prince Metternich to a course which would have involved the march of a powerful Russian force through the Austrian dominions. In 1822 the question was again raised at the congress assembled at Verona (see VERONA, CON GRESS oF). The French Government asked to be allowed to march into Spain, as Austria had marched into Naples.