Wars

The Young Europe movement, which had its centre in Switzer land, the intrigues of Mazzini, the meeting of the German liberals at Berne in 1834, the assassination of the German spy Lessing in 1835, the arrest of the French agent provocateur Conseil in 1836, led to a series of diplomatic difficulties for Switzerland. The most serious incident, which very nearly involved the Confedera tion in a war with France, was that which arose in 1838 out of the presence in Thurgau and the activities of Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, afterwards Napoleon III.

The Sonderbund War.

Within the Confederation itself the struggle for the revision of the Federal Pact soon assumed a char acter of such violence as to presage the civil war which in fact subsequently broke out. On March 17, 1832, the liberal cantons concluded a sort of alliance among themselves, known as the "Con cordat of the Seven" (Siebener Concordat), by which they mutu ally guaranteed their constitutions. In November the conservative cantons concluded a similar alliance (League of Sarnen). These alliances were not confessional in character, and included both Protestant and Catholic cantons. The situation, however, was altered by the Articles of Baden, adopted by the liberal cantons on Jan. 2o, 1834 ; they contained a programme of ecclesiastical re form, and transformed the struggle for the revision of the Consti tution into a religious quarrel.

The Articles of Baden were condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities on May 17, 1835, but were enforced with vigour and even with brutality by certain cantons. On Jan. 20, 1841, the can ton of Aargau suppressed the monasteries, thus violating the Pact, which guaranteed them. On May I, 1841, the Catholics returned to power in Lucerne, and on Oct. 24, 1844, they called in the Jesuits to teach'in the cantonal high-school. This irritated the liberals of the cantons of Berne and Aargau, which organized armed bands (corps francs) who on two occasions invaded the territory of Lucerne. Seven Catholic cantons—Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unter walden, Zug, Fribourg and Valais—replied by concluding, on Dec. I I, 1845, a separate and secret alliance known as the Sonderbund. On July 20, 1847, the diet declared by a majority that the Sonder band was contrary to the Constitution, and ordered its dissolution. The seven cantons refused to obey, and the Genevese General G.

H. Dufour marched against them at the head of the Federal army and defeated them after a short campaign in Nov. 1847. He thus averted an intervention by the Powers which was being planned by Metternich and Guizot, although the scheme was opposed by Lord Palmerston.

The Federal State.

The Federal Constitution of 1848, while respecting the sovereignty of the cantons, gave the Confederation wide powers, particularly in the economic sphere. Executive power was placed in the hands of a Federal Council of seven mem bers elected by Parliament for three years and in practice almost always re-elected. The legislative authority lay in two chambers, one representing the nation as a whole and the other the cantons. It will be seen from this that the authors of the Swiss Constitu tion—Kern of Thurgau, Druey of Vaud and James Fazy of Gen eva—drew their inspiration largely from the American model. The headquarters of the Federal authorities, which had up till then been moved every two years, were fixed at Berne. The most novel feature of the new Constitution was the ample provision made for its amendment. It was the immutable character of the Pact of 1815 which had led to civil war, and the authors of the 1848 Constitution took pains to avoid falling into the same error. The new Federal authorities, in which the most moderate elements of the liberal party had a majority, at once set to work. The postal and telegraphic systems, the customs, the currency and weights and measures were unified in succession. The act of 1852 dealing with railways was the most important legislative measure, and once more exacerbated the rivalry between the various cantons and districts, more particularly Berne and Zurich. This did not, however, prevent rapid progress in the building of railways.

The new Confederation was at once faced with serious decisions on foreign policy. In 1848 Sardinia offered Switzerland its alliance against Austria ; but such an offer was contrary to the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland, and it was rejected. In the years which followed the great crisis of 1848 a large number of political refugees established themselves in Switzerland, involving that country in disputes with most of the neighbouring Powers— France, Sardinia, Austria and Germany. In 1848 Neuchatel (q.v.) had proclaimed a republic. In 1856 a revolution attempted to restore the power of the prince. War with Prussia was narrowly averted by the mediation of Napoleon III., to whom the Swiss cause was represented by the embassy of General Dufour to Paris. The king of Prussia was finally persuaded to renounce his rights, save the title—which his successor also subsequently dropped.