These developments were of political importance rather than economic; politically they were a powerful example for the joint stock organization of business enterprise, but they did not assist markedly in the special evolution of trade or merchant organiza tion. At the same time they do, however, represent yet another direction in which trade has become organized, i.e., according to the region of the world with which the trading activities are carried on. Shipping and commerce have separated so that examples of shipowners acting as merchants or vice versa are rare ; it is also rare that the trade between any particular parts of the world is concentrated in the hands of a single group of merchants or of a trading company in the old sense. Consultative bodies devoted to such special trades exist, however, such as the China Association and the British Merchants' Morocco Associa tion, both of long standing. Among the more modern bodies of this kind may be mentioned the British and Latin American chamber of commerce founded in 1916 and open to all firms in the United Kingdom or in Latin America. There are also special committees of the larger chambers of commerce devoted to the trade with special geographical regions as, e.g., the Far Eastern and Uruguayan committees of the London chamber and the China and Far East and Central and South America com mittees of the Manchester chamber.
Chambers of Commerce in the British Empire.—The earliest chamber of commerce to be established in British ter ritory overseas was that founded at New York in 1768. After that the Commercial Exchange of Cape Town which later, 1861, became the Cape Town chamber of commerce, was the earliest "colonial" body of the kind, having been founded in 1804. Be tween 183o and 1840 a group of chambers of commerce were founded in British India—at Calcutta Bombay and Mad ras (1836) and Ceylon (1839). In 1840 chambers were founded in Australia (Adelaide) and Jamaica; in 1845 in Canada (To ronto). During the second half of the 19th century the com mercial communities of all the chief cities of the empire formed chambers which are very similar in character to those of Great Britain. In most of the dominions there are general associations of these chambers corresponding to the Association of British Chambers of Commerce in Great Britain, e.g., the Canadian chamber of commerce (1927), the Associated Chambers of Com merce of India which embraces 17 chambers, the Associated Chambers of Commerce of the commonwealth of Australia and the Association of Chambers of Commerce of South Africa. There are a Canadian, and an Australian, Chamber of Commerce in London.
The further concentration of the commercial opinion of the empire was early recognized as desirable and a series of con gresses of the chambers of commerce in all parts of the British dominions began in 1886 with that convened by the London chamber when 97 such bodies were represented; at the third congress in 1896 when Joseph Chamberlain was honorary presi dent 162 chambers took part. In 1911 a permanent body called
the British Imperial Council of Commerce was established which is now known as the Federation of Chambers of Commerce of the British Empire. This body continues the series of congresses at intervals of three years and at the eleventh held at Cape Town in 1927 74 chambers participated. The membership of the federa tion itself is 169 chambers of commerce and associations of chambers, fully representative of every part of the empire. By means of these congresses matters affecting to inter-imperial commerce are examined and a common policy postulated mainly for the guidance of the Governments of the empire, on such subjects, as taxation, communications, empire development and trade policy, research and education. Their work is thus ancillary to that of the imperial conferences and the imperial shipping and economic committees together with the Empire Marketing Board (as to which see below).
Organization in regard to the several trades or industries is established in the dominions as in Great Britain and naturally to an extent commensurate with their industrial development.
British Chambers of Commerce in Foreign Countries.— British chambers of commerce in foreign countries advise and assist British diplomatic and consular officers and serve the general interests of British trade with the respective countries or dis tricts in which they are situated. They vary in constitution especially in regard to the extent to which foreign elements are admitted; while some are closed to foreigners others admit them on equal terms ; in yet others a midway course is adopted. On the question of subsidizing these bodies by the Government a Foreign Office committee in 192o reported definitely against the grant of Government subsidies and British chambers of com merce abroad are quite independent of Government funds. Such chambers exist in nearly every important foreign country and they are particularly strong in China.
Foreign Chambers of Commerce in Great Britain.—Recip rocally, foreign chambers of commerce are free to establish themselves in Great Britain and generally throughout the empire and to carry on the normal activities of such bodies. In this way most of the leading commercial countries are represented in London.
In some countries on the other hand foreign chambers can only work under certain restrictions. This is easily understood in the case cif those countries in which the national chambers of commerce have an official character.