In the 5th century both Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were con quered by the Vandals, whose power was destroyed by the Byzan tine general Belisarius in the following century. In the middle of the 7th century north Africa was overrun by the Arabs, and Chris tianity gave place to Islam. From this period dates the decay of a civilization which had lasted about i,000 years. Tripolitania be came subject to the successive rulers of Tunisia. It was pillaged in 1146 by the Normans of Sicily. In 1321 the Beni Ammar estab lished an independent dynasty, which lasted with an interval (1354-69), during which two sovereigns of the Beni Mekki reigned, until 1401, when Tripolitania was reconquered by the Tunisians. In 1510 Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain took the city of Tripoli, and in 1528 it was given to the knights of St. John, who were expelled in 1553 by the Turkish corsairs Dragut and Sinan. Thus the country fell to the Turks, though after the death of Dragut the connection with Constantinople seems to have weak ened. The Tripolitan pirates soon became the scourge of the Mediterranean ; half the states of Europe seem at one time or other to have sent fleets to bombard the capital of the country, nor was piracy stopped until after the French occupation of Algiers in 1830. In 1714 Ahmed Pasha Caramanli achieved prac tical independence. He and his descendants governed the country as a regency, the claims of the Porte being recognized by the pay ment of tribute, or "presents." In the early part of the 19th cen tury the regency, owing to its piratical practices, was twice in volved in war with the United States. In May 1801 the pasha demanded from America an increase in the tribute ($83,000) which the Government of that country had paid since 1796 for the protection of their commerce from piracy. The demand was refused and a naval force was sent from America to blockade Tripoli. The war dragged on for four years, the Americans in 1803 losing the frigate "Philadelphia," the commander (Captain Wil liam Bainbridge) and the whole crew being made prisoners. The most picturesque incident in the war was the expedition under taken by William Eaton (q.v.), with the object of replacing upon the Tripolitan throne an exiled pasha, elder brother of the reigning sovereign, who had promised to accede to all the wishes of the United States. Eaton, at the head of a motley assembly of 500 men, marched across the desert from Alexandria, and with the aid of American ships succeeded in capturing Derna. Soon afterwards (June 3, 1805) peace was concluded, the reigning pasha relinquish ing his demands, but receiving $6o,000 (about i12,000) as ransom for the "Philadelphia" prisoners. In 1815, in consequence of fur ther outrages, Captains Bainbridge and Stephen Decatur, at the head of a squadron, again visited Tripoli and forced the pasha to comply with the demands of the United States.
In 1835 the Turks took advantage of a civil war to reassert their direct authority. They administered the country as an ordi nary vilayet (province) under a pasha. Turkish rule was marked by occasional, spasmodic, and mainly ineffective efforts to develop the country. When in 1881 the French seized Tunisia the Turks were alarmed and greatly strengthened their garrison in Tripoli tania. Disputes followed as to the extent of the Tripolitan hinter land, which the French endeavoured to circumscribe. It was not only the French that the Turks had to fear. Italy had looked upon Tunisia as her heritage and, baulked in that direction, she now fixed her eyes upon Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. More or less definite understandings were reached on the subject with other European Powers interested. For another generation, however, the Turks remained undisturbed and under the impetus of the Pan-Islamic movement Turkish authority was pushed far south, a Turkish garrison even occupying the oasis of Bilma in 191o. Meanwhile, Germany was making endeavours to secure economic and, as a result, political predominance in both Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. This led to action by Italy; war was declared upon
Turkey in Nov. 191I and both Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were declared to be under the full sovereignty of Italy. (For the war see ITALO-TURKISH WAR.) When the Treaty of Lausanne was signed in Oct. 1912 the Italians, however, held only the coast region, and they met with considerable opposition from the natives (Berbers and Arabs) in their occupation of the interior. But by Aug. 1914 every place of importance in the vilayet, including Fezzan, was in Italian hands. Meanwhile in the coast districts the Italians had begun with great energy a big programme of public works, while towards the Arabs and Berbers they adopted a policy of confidence and trust.
Unfortunately, in Cyrenaica the war continued, the Turks hav ing incited the Senussites to continue the struggle. (See SENussi.) In Sept. 1914 the Fezzani, many of whom adhered to the Senussi sect, rose in revolt. Turkish, German and Senussi propaganda was very active throughout Tripolitania, and the declaration of war by Italy upon Austria (May 28, 1915) was the signal for a general rising. After some hesitation the Italians, in view of the situation in Europe, abandoned the whole country, with the exception of the seaports of Tripoli and Horns (Khoms). Another seaport, Zuwara, was reoccupied in Aug. 1916. Meanwhile, a brother of the Senussi chief ruled in Fezzan; Suleiman el Baruni, a Berber chieftain who had given much trouble in 1912-13, reappeared (Sept. 1916) with a firman from the sultan of Turkey appointing him governor-general of the vilayets of Tripoli, Tunis and Algiers; Ramadhan el Shtewi, another powerful chieftain, established a so-called republic of Tripoli and ruled at Misurata, which place became a German submarine base. There was, however, little cohesion and much jealousy among the opponents of Italy.
Such was the state of chaos in the country at the end of the World War, and the Italians were then in no mood to undertake the reconquest of Tripolitania by force. There was little real improvement in the situation until Giuseppe Volpi became gov ernor in Aug. 1921. Under his direction a campaign, which began in Jan. 1922 with the reoccupation of Misurata, was conducted to a successful issue by the end of 1923. Thereafter, by wise and conciliatory measures and by a bold policy of economic recon struction, Volpi restored order and a degree of prosperity to a large part of the country, though Fezzan was still troubled by rival factions. In the latter part of his governorship Volpi had the full support of the Fascist Government. For his services he was created Count Volpi of Misurata. On resigning his post in July 1925 he became minister of finance in the Italian cabinet. His successor as governor was General de Bono.
In 1927-28 systematic military operations were carried out by the Italians which resulted in the occupation of the district—long a no man's land—at the eastern end of the gulf of Sidra, where Tripolitania and Cyrenaica meet. By these operations the Italians came into effective control of all the region north of the Sahara. A visit paid by the king and queen of Italy to Tripoli and other towns in April 1928 may be taken to mark the completion of the task of establishing order and security in the colony. (See further CYRENAICA and SENUSSI.) R. L. Playfair, Bibliography of the Barbary States, pt. i., "Tripoli and the Cyrenaica" (1892) ; A Handbook of Libya, a British Admiralty publication, 1917 (with short bibliog raphy) ; A. Medana, Il Vilayet di Tripoli di Barberia nell' anno 1902 (Italian Foreign Office, Rome, 1904) ; A. Fantoli, Piccola Guida della Tripolitania (Tripoli, 1925) ; La Rinascita della Tripolitania, ed. A. Piccioli (Milan, 1926), an account of Count Volpi's governorship. The letters (1819) of Richard Tully, consul at Tripoli from 1783 to 1793, throw a strange and vivid light on Tripolitan life during the 18th century. (F. R. C.)