Frankfurt-on-the-Oder received its charter in 1506.
The first Scottish foundation was at St. Andrews, founded in 1411 by Henry Wardlaw, bishop of that see, and modelled chiefly on the constitution of the University of Paris. It acquired all its three colleges-St. Salvator's, St. Leonard's and St. Mary's-before the Reformation. The most ancient of the universities of Scotland, with its three colleges, was thus reared in an atmosphere of mediaeval theology, and un doubtedly designed as a bulwark against heresy and schism. But "by a strange irony of fate, two of these colleges became, almost from the first, the foremost agents in working the overthrow of that Church which they were founded to defend." St. Leonard's more especially, like St. John's or Queen's at Cambridge, became a noted centre of intellectual life and Reformation principles.
The University of Glasgow was founded as a studium generale in 1453, and possessed two colleges.
The University of Aberdeen, founded in 1494, at first possessed only one college, namely, King's, which was co-extensive with the university and conferred degrees. Marischal college, founded in 1593, was independent of the university in Old Aberdeen, being itself also a college and a university, with the power of conferring degrees.
The "College of Edinburgh" was founded by charter of James VI., dated April 14, 1582. The new foundation rose comparatively untrammelled by the traditions of mediaevalism. Its first course of instruction was commenced in the Kirk of Field, under the direction of Robert Rollock, who had been educated at St. An drews under Andrew Melville, the eminent Covenanter. In 1585 Rollock subscribed the National Covenant, and a like subscription was, from that time, required from those admitted to degrees in the college.
Generally speaking, the universities were conservative. Hegius, John Wessel and Rudolphus Agricola car ried on their work as reformers at places like Deventer remote from university influences. That there was a considerable amount of mental activity going on in the universities themselves is not to be denied; but it was mostly of that unprofitable kind which, while giving rise to endless controversy, turned upon questions in connection with which the implied postulates and the termi nology employed rendered all scientific investigation hopeless. At almost every university-Leipzig, Greifswald and Prague (after 1409) being the principal exceptions-the so-called Realists and Nominalists represented two great parties occupied with an inter necine struggle. At Paris, owing to the overwhelming strength of the theologians, the Nominalists were, indeed, under a kind of ban ; but at Heidelberg they had altogether expelled their antago nists. It was much the same at Vienna and at Erfurt. At Basle, under the leadership of the eminent Johannes a Lapide, the Realists with difficulty maintained their ground. Freiburg, Tu bingen and Ingolstadt, in the hope of diminishing controversy, arrived at a kind of compromise, each party having its own pro fessor, and representing a distinct "nation." At Mainz the au
thorities adopted a manual of logic which was essentially an em bodiment of nominalistic principles.
In Italian universities, it was decided that these controversies were endless and that their effects were pernicious. It was re solved, accordingly, to expel logic, and allow its place to be filled by rhetoric, thereby effecting that important revolution in aca demic studies which constituted a new era in university learning, and largely helped to pave the way for the Reformation. Hence the Italian universities enjoyed a fortunate immunity from dis sensions like those which distracted the centres of learning in Germany.
The professorial body in the great Italian universities attained an almost unrivalled reputation throughout Europe. For each subject of importance there were always two, and sometimes three, rival chairs, and a powerful and continuous emulation was thus maintained among the teachers. "The call to a Paduan or Pisan chair was deemed the highest of all literary honours. The status of professor was, in Italy, el6vated to a dignity which in other countries it has never reached ; and not a few of the most illustrious teachers in the Italian seminaries were of the proudest nobility of the land. While the universities of other countries had fallen from Christian and cosmopolite to sectarian and local schools, it is the peculiar glory of the Italian that, under the enlightened liberality of their patrons, they still continued to assert their European universality. Creed and country were, in them, no bar—the latter not even a reason of preference. For eigners of every nation are to be found among their professors; and the most learned man in Scotland, Thomas Dempster, sought in a Pisan chair that theatre for his abilities which he could not find at home" (Sir W. Hamilton—Discussions).
To such catholicity of sentiment the Spanish univer sities of this period offer a complete contrast, their history being strongly modified by political and religious movements. Valencia, founded in 1501, and Seville, sanctioned by Julius II. in 15o5, appear both to have been regarded without mistrust at Rome. Julius had approved the foundation of the University of Santiago as early as 1504, but the bull for its creation was not granted by Clement VII. until 1526. The design of establishing a university at Granada was deferred until 1531. Little, indeed, is to be learnt respecting the new society until the foundation of the liberally endowed College de Sacro Monte by the archbishop of the prov ince in 1605. Under the direction of the Jesuits the scholastic philosophy, together with a certain attention to Greek and He brew, became the dominant study. Gregory XIII. in 1574 author ized the foundation of the University of Oviedo; but this was not opened until 16o8, and then only with a faculty of law. After this time the universities in Spain shared in the general decline of the country; and, even after the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1769, no marked improvement is discernible in their schools until the second half of the 19th century.