After 1862, however, the kingdom of Italy began to take a deep interest in the future of Tunisia. When the country went bankrupt in 1869, a triple control was established over Tunisian finances, with British, French and Italian "controllers." In 1880 the Italians bought the British railway from Tunis to Goletta. This and other actions excited the French to act on the secret understanding effected with the British foreign minister at the Berlin Congress. In 1881 a French force crossed the Algerian frontier under pretext of chastising the independent Khmir or Kroumir tribes on the north-east of the regency, and, quickly dropping the mask, advanced on the capital and compelled the Bey to accept the French protectorate. The actual conquest of the country was not effected without a serious struggle with Mus lim fanaticism, especially at Sfax; but all Tunisia was brought completely under French control, military posts being placed at every important point. (H. H. J.) Muhammed VI., the reigning Bey, signed the treaty acknowledg ing a French protectorate at his summer residence, the Bardo palace, on May 12, 1881. He died in Oct. 1882, and a new treaty, that of La Marsa (June 8, 1883) was signed by his brother and successor, Ali IV. A resident general was appointed by France, and he also became foreign minister of the Regency. From 1884 onward the French carried out a thorough reform of the adminis tration. The native government was retained, but the majority of the ministers were Frenchmen. The resources of the country were steadily developed, order was maintained, native laws and customs were respected and Tunisia was much benefited. Great Britain, as was to be anticipated, early recognized the protectorate, as did most of the other Powers. Turkey did not, and though by 1892 she so far acknowledged the de facto situation as to consent to define, partially, the Tunisian-Tripolitanian frontier, it was not until 1920, by the treaty of Sevres, that Turkish claims to the Regency were finally renounced. Italy, however, was in fact more deeply concerned than were the Turks by the establishment of the French protectorate. In Tunisia her interests were not merely geo graphical and political. Italians formed by far the largest Euro pean colony, and Italy had hoped to secure the Regency for her self. It was not until 1896 that Italy formally acknowledged the protectorate, and by the terms of a convention then concluded the right of Italians in Tunisia to maintain their nationality was guar anteed. British subjects had the same right; this affected chiefly
the large number of Maltese settled in the country. The persis tence shown by Italians and Maltese in maintaining their national ity was a cause of annoyance to the French, and of some practical inconvenience. As part of an effort to give the protectorate a more French character decrees were issued in 1921 declaring that British and Italian subjects, born of parents who were themselves born in Tunisia, would be deemed to be of French nationality. These decrees provoked resentment, especially among the Italians. As to the British (i.e., Maltese) an arrangement was reached with France in 1923 whereby the persons affected were entitled to decline French nationality. With Italy no settlement had been reached up to 1929—the convention of 1896 being still in force.
The nomad tribes in the South gave occasional trouble, but French rule was generally accepted. During the World War tribes men from Fezzan, led by Turkish officers, attacked the French out posts in southern Tunisia. There was some sharp fighting in Sept. and Oct. 1915, when the French re-established order. Later on large numbers of Tunisian soldiers were employed in France. In 1919-20 by agreement with Italy the territory south of Tunisia forming salients between the oases of Ghadames and Ghat and between Ghat and Tummo was transferred by France to Italy.
In northern Tunisia, where agriculture and industry flourished, there was some assimilation by the Tunisians of Western thought, and a generation arose which, not having experienced the misrule existing before the French occupation, sought larger political rights. In 1922, to meet the desire of the Tunisians for a share in the administration, a general council for the protectorate—consist ing of 44 French and 18 nominated native representatives—and regional councils, were established. The general council super seded a consulting conference set up in 1905, and had wider pow ers than that body. There had already arisen a nationalist agita tion, and this in 1924-25, when the cost of living was four times as great as in 1914, was mixed up with a Communist agitation, accompanied by some disturbances in the towns. The Communist agitation was not deep rooted, but among educated Tunisians there was a demand for a democratic form of government. This demand was not met, but as an educational measure further pow ers were conferred in 1925 on municipal councils.