Turkish Language and Literature

We will now glance at the prose writers of this period. Under the name of Humayfin Noma (Imperial Book) 'Ali Chelebi made a highly esteemed translation of the well-known Persian classic Anvar-i Suheyli, dedicating it to Suleiman I. Said-ud-Din (d. '599), the preceptor of Murad III., wrote a valuable history of the empire from the earliest times to the death of Selim I. This work, the Taj-ut-Tevcirikh (Crown of Chronicles), is reckoned, on account of its ornate yet clear style, one of the masterpieces of the old school, and forms the first of an unbroken series of annals which are written, especially the later among them, with great minuteness and detail. Of Said-ud-Din's successors in the office of imperial historiographer the most remarkable for literary power is Nalma. His work, which extends from 1591 (moo) to 1659 (1070), contrasts strongly with that of the earlier historian, being written with great directness and lucidity, combined with much vigour and picturesqueness. Evliya, who died during the reign of Mohammed IV., is noted for the record which he has left of his travels in different countries. About this time Tash-kopri zada began and 'At.a-ullah continued a celebrated biography of the legists and sheikhs who had flourished under the Ottoman mon archs. Haji Khalifa, frequently termed Katib Chelebi, was one of the most famous men of letters whom Turkey has produced. He died in 1658 (1°68), having written a great number of learned works on history, biography, chronology, geography and other subjects. The Persianizing tendency of this school reached its highest point in the productions of Veysi, who left a Life of the Prophet, and of Nergisi, a miscellaneous writer of prose and verse. The first printing-press in Turkey was established by an Hungarian who had assumed the name of Ibrahim, and in 1728 (1140 appeared the first book printed in that country; it was Vankuli's Turkish translation of Jevheri's Arabic dictionary.

Post-classical Period.

Coming now to the post-classical period, we find among poets worthy of mention Beligh, Nevres, Hishmet and Sunbuli-zada Vehbi, each of whom wrote in a style peculiar to himself. Three poets of note—Pertev, Neshet and Sheikh Ghalib—flourished under Selim III. The last-named is the fourth great poet of the old school. Husn u `Ashk (Beauty and Love), as his great poem is called, is an allegorical romance full of tenderness and imaginative power. Ghalib's style is as original as that of Fuziali, Nell or Nedim.

. When we reach the reign of Mahmud II., the great transition period of Ottoman history, during which the civilization of the West began to struggle in earnest with that of the East, we find the change which was coming over all things Turkish affecting literature, along with the rest, and preparing the way for the appearance of the new school. The chief poets of the transition are Fazil Bey, Wasif, eIzzet Molla, Pertev Pasha, eAkif Pasha, and the poetesses Fitnet and Leyla. In the works of all of these, although we occasionally discern a hint of the new style, the old Persian manner is still supreme.

More intimate relations with western Europe and a pretty general study of the French language and literature, together with the steady progress of the reforming tendency fairly started under Mahmild II., resulted in the birth of the new or modern school,

whose objects are truth and simplicity. The transformation of Turkish literature and the creation of the Young Turk party were alike due to three great men, Shinasi, Kemal and Ziya. Shinasi's small volume of translations from various French poets appeared in 1859. In the following year he founded the first non-official journal in Turkey, in which he published in simple language articles dealing with the scientific and social questions from a modern European point of view. The first work of fiction ever translated into Turkish was Fenelon's Telemaque which appeared in 1862, the translator being Yusuf Kemal Pasha. It was Ahmad Midhat who conceived the idea of writing stories depicting Turk ish life and manners. The first collection of national tales ap peared in 187o. In 1869 Ahmad Vefiq Pasha published translations of three of Moliere's comedies, adapting the scenes and the names to suit local conditions. In 1871 appeared the first original Turkish drama, a form chosen by Abd-ul-Haqq Harnid for his best poetry.

The Revolution of 1908.

The turning point in Turkish na tional conscience came with the Revolution of 1908, which marks the beginning of a new era. With the rise of democracy there naturally was felt the need of a closer collaboration between the cultivated classes and the people who had for centuries been kept at a distance from one another for the reason that men of letters only wrote for a small circle of intellectuals in a language and on subjects which were untelligible to the lower classes. The battle cry of the new school was Khalga doghru, "towards the people," and societies were formed like the Turk Derneyi at Constantinople and the Yeni Lisanjilar at Salonica, whose object was to introduce a new literary language adapted to the under standing of the people and a literature free from foreign influences. Among the foremost workers in this new field were 'Ali Janib, Omar Saifeddin, and Ziya Gok Alp (1875-1925), the real founder of the new Turkish nationalist movement, and last but not least Mehmed Emin, a religious poet who came of lowly stock and as spokesman for the people has enjoyed very special popularity. The new movement found its first expression in newspapers, and all the new writers began as journalists or novelists or as poets con tributing to newspapers. Among those who have attained the highest rank may be mentioned the following writers : Tewfiq Fikret (d. 1915), Jenab Shehab ad-Din (b. 1877), Nigar Khanum, a distinguished poetess (1871-1918), Mehmed `Akif (187o-1937), Khalid Ziya, Ahmad Hikmet (b. 1879), Mehmed Ratuf (b. 1875), Yacqub Qadri (b. 1889), Khalide Edib Hanum (b. 1883) and Husein Jahid (b. 1875). Literary criticism is notably represented by Kopruli Zade Mohammed Had Bey, one of the professors of Constantinople university, an ardent scholar who is engaged in compiling a new history of the Ottoman literature. (E. D. R.)