The saksaul (Anabasis ammodendron) of the Kara-kum has been almost destroyed within the last hundred years, and occurs only sporadically, but the borders of the spaces covered with saline clay are brightened by forests of tamarisk, which are inhabited by great numbers of the desert warbler (Atraphornis aralensis)— a typical inhabitant of the sands—sparrows and ground-choughs (Podoces); the Houbara macqueeni, is characteristic of the re gion. Hares and foxes, jackals and wolves, marmots, moles, hedge hogs and one species of marten live in the steppe.
A feature distinctive of the Turkmen desert is the very numerous shors, or elongated depressions, the lower por tion of which are mostly occupied with moist sand. They are obviously the relics of brackish lakes, and, like the lakes of the Kirghiz steppes, they often follow one another in quick succes sion, thus closely resembling river-beds. As the direction of the shors is generally from the higher terraces drained by the Amu darya towards the lowlands of the Caspian, they led to the idea that the Amu-darya once flowed across the Turkmen desert to wards what is now the Caspian sea. It was assumed, not only that that river (see Oxus) flowed into the Caspian, but that after having ceased to do so in the 7th century, its waters were again diverted to the Caspian about 1221. A chain of similar depres sions was traced from Urgenj to the gap between the Great and the Little Balkans; this was marked on the maps as the Uzboi, or old bed of the Oxus. The idea of again diverting the Amu into the Caspian was thus set afloat, but the investigations of Russian engineers, especially A. E. Hedroitz, A. M. Konshin, I. V. Mush ketov, P. M. Lessar and Svintsovl, went to show that the Uzboi is no river-bed at all, and that no river has ever discharged its waters in that direction. The existence of an extensive lacustrine depres sion, now represented by the small Sary-kamysh lakes, was proved, and it was evident that this depression, having a length of more than 13o m., a width of 7o m., and a depth of 28o ft. below the present level of Lake Aral, would have to be filled by the Amu before its waters could advance farther to the south-west.
The ancient texts (of Pliny, Strabo, Ptolemy) about the Jax artes and Oxus only become intelligible when it is admitted that, since the epoch to which they relate, the outlines of the Caspian Sea and Lake Aral have undergone notable changes, commensurate with those which are supposed to have occurred in the courses of the Central Asian rivers. The desiccation of the Aral-Caspian basin proceeded with such rapidity that the shores of the Caspian cannot possibly have maintained for some twenty centuries the outlines which they exhibit at present. The general configuration
of the Trans-Caspian region leaves no doubt that both the Jaxartes and the Oxus, with its former tributaries, the Murghab and the Tejefi, once flowed towards the west ; but the Caspian of that time was not the sea of our days ; its gulfs penetrated the Turkmen steppe, and washed the base of the Ust-Urt plateau. (See CASPIAN SEA and ARAL.) Climate, etc.—The region between the Heri-rud and the Murghab is a plateau, 2,000 ft. above the sea, with hills 50o and 600 ft. high covered with sand, the spaces between being filled with loess. The Borkhut Mountains which connect the Kopet-dagh with the Sefid-kuh in Afghanistan reach 3,00o to 4,000 ft., and are cleft by the Heri-rud. Thickets of poplar and willow accom pany both the Murghab and the Heri-rud. Pistachio and mulberry trees grow in isolated clumps on the hills ; but there are few places available for cultivation. The climate is continental and the maxi mum temperature in the shade in summer varies between 43° C at Tejend and 46° C at Serakhs. The average summer tempera ture varies between 29° C and 32° C and winter between o.i° C at Mery and 3° C at Termez. The rainfall is insignificant and falls in December, January and February, summer being rainless and sultry. Thus cultivation depends entirely on irrigation.
The years of civil war and disorder fol lowing 1917 resulted in a sharp drop in the amount of cultivated land ; irrigation canals were not cleaned or repaired and famine was widespread. As a result the number of cattle, especially sheep, was disastrously diminished, partly through slaughter and partly because herdsmen migrated into Persia and Afghanistan with their flocks. After the restoration of somewhat more settled conditions a complete revolution in social system was enforced, the old tribal holding of water rights was abolished and a new system of government control and distribution of water supply and of fertile land introduced. This involves much difficulty for the illiterate tribesmen and conditions are far from stable, though there has been a marked improvement during 1926-8, especially in cotton growing, to which the Soviet government attaches much impor tance. The grain and wheat crop is insufficient for the needs of the people and 75,00o tons were imported in 1926-7. The Mery oasis (q.v.) is reviving and an electric plant and new irrigation works have been constructed. Watermelons, fruits and vines are cultivated and silkworm breeding is an ancient occupation, espe cially round Mery and Ashkabad. In former times the silk was worked entirely as a peasant industry, but in 1927-8 a factory was under construction for large scale silk manufacture.