DRAINING. The subject of drainage is one of the most important that can interest the farmer. Modern appliances aided by science has now ren dered the task of thorough drainage so simple and easy that there seems no excuse for allowing the soil to lie water-soaked, for perhaps two or three weeks at a time in the spring, rendering the soil sour, or sodden to that degree as sometimes to reduce its value permanently,and always one-half during the growing season, when an ex pense of from ten to fifty dollars, according to the amount of drain age required per acre, will place it in the best possible condition for the cultivation of crops, add from two to three weeks to the length of the season, and add also from ten to twenty bushels of grain, and in far great er proportion to the fer tility per acre in some other crops. In fact in all crops in the garden, nursery and orchard, there are but few natural soils but will nay for draining.
Whether this is to be accomplished by means of open ditches and superficial drains (water carriers) is a question each farmer must decide for himself. Where tile are to be had near at hand and at reasonable prices, these are in every case cheapest, except in the case of bound ary fences, to be formed by a ditch and embank ment. Even here, it is an open question, depend ing entirely on the value of the land. The objection to open ditches and banks is, they are constantly filling up, are harbors for vile weeds and vermin ous animals, and serious obstacles to clean cul tivation generally. Thorough drainage is always to be considered in the light of a permanent invest ment. The work done and well done but little expense is thereafter required. Thus if a piece of land requires drainage, lines of tile at regular intervals, 4 may cost fifty dollars per acre, in particularly difficult cases, more. Hence, taking fifty dollars as the average, if the crop is increased five dollars per acre, the cost of the draining pays :Len per cent. per annum. The labor of cultivation is always largely reduced on drained land over that undrained. Hence, this must also be taken into consideration. There is another matter, and one not less important than the others mentioned. The value of the land is not only increased in dollars and cents, but the fertility of the soil is also increased, both from its greater friability, and also, its power of absorbing fertilizing matters from the air, and the conservation of the artificial fertilizers em ployed. These are notable facts, which will be fully attested by every intelligent man who has undertaken thorongh drainage in a systematic manner, and carefully noted results. The follow ing are lands that may he considered to require thorough drainage, by covered ditches, contain ing a water-way beneath : Any soil so retentive that water will stand in a hole, for forty-eight hours after a heavy rain. Any soil where clover or wheat is liable to be killed in winter. Any soil having a very retentive sub-soil within two feet of the surface. Any soil where tufts of wild grass, or semi-aquatic plants make their appear ance from time to time. Flat lands near the dwelling house, or those to be used for gardens or orchards. Slopes of hills where water rises to the surface, along impervious strata cropping out, or which, at certain seasons contain seeps, as they are termed. And, in certain cases, where special crops are to be cultivated, any soil that can not be plowed within thirty-six hours after a heavy rain. In relation to the size of the water way at the bottom of the ditch ; this will depend on the quantity of water to be carried away, the declivity (gradient) of the tile, its uniform slope, smoothness, etc. In article Tile will be found tables showing capacity, etc. In preparing for thorough drainage, the first thing requisite is to find the slope and fall of the land. Where this is slight, an engineer must be engaged to get the contour lines, establish gradients, and pegs for determining the depth of the ditches. Under ordinary circumstances, however, especially where single lines only are required, the eye, with the help of the water running in the ditch, will be sufficient. One thing, however, must be remembered; the gradient must never be decreased from below the starting point, without increasing the size of the tile, and a catch basin should always be placed at this point. That is a barrel or structure of brick, to catch and pass off the inflow of the small tile, and at a lower level than that of the inflow from the small tile. The material for water ways in the covered ditches should always be of tile if possible. In some timbered, and in some stony countries, however, where tile is not easily had, the ditches may be filled with brush, poles, slabs, stones or other refuse material. If stones, are plenty, they may be thrown in irregularly, filling the ditch to within twenty inches of the top, and if the clay be rammed hard over them they will last indefinitely, yet it is far better that a row of small stones be laid along each side and covered with flat stones, or round stones of a size sufficient to leave a water way below. If the sides of the ditch. Sometimes it is desirable to make a drain subserve a double purpose of draining the land and affording a supply of water for stock and other purposes. All that is necessary to accomplish this is to select depressions, where the tile may come near the surface; make a tight box sunk so its top is just even with the top of the ground; allow the water to flow into this box at the surface of the earth, covering the tile with a mound sufficient to keep out frost and prevent the poaching of cattle. In situations where this may not be feasible, an excavation ten or twelve feet wide on two sides may be made as shown at Fig. 8, so that stock may come and drink, the whole rock is shelly but solid, flat slabs are best, as shown in Fig. 1 and 2. The manner of using poles and slabs, or poles entirely, is shown in Fig. 3 and 4. If a very great quantity of water is sometimes to be carried, a combina tion of tile and stone may be economical. The tile and stone drain is shown at Fig. 5. Fig. 6 and 7 show two manners of forming the bot toms of ditches with earth sides to hold the covering, of plank or stone. In fact, in stiff adhe sive clays, if a channel be carefully cut, with shoulders, as shown in Fig. 6 and 7, planks or even sods will make a covering to the water way that will last for many years. It should be remembered however, that when plank, slabs, or poles are used for covering, they should be sawed of proper length to fit across the ditch, hence the necessity of accuracy in paring the to be so guarded that stock cannot enter the trough. In conclusion, something of the history of draining from the earliest times, will not be uninteresting. There is no record of draining—carrying away superfluous water from the soil—until the time of Augustus. Tiberius and Columella, who lived then, first speak of ground causeways, while preceding writers, as Cato, Varro, and Virgil, write only of open ditches. Columella speaks of both open and closed ditches three feet deep, the closed ditches filled to half their depth with pebbles, stones and facines (bundles of brush).
Captain Walter Bligh, who wrote about 1652, advocates drains derground three to four feet deep, or the depth of an iron shovel, below the area of oozing water. He has been credited with being the father of underdraining, but it is evident he got what he knew from sical sources. ably Oliver de Serres, a French writer, whose Theatre of ture was printed in the year 1600, is the first modern writer who really taught thorough age. He not only advocated the single ditches of Columella, but 'treats of successive lines, ing also the main lines to be covered, and also the precautions necessary to secure effective drainage. He insists that for the best results the ditches should be at least four feet deep. This accords with the best experience in underdrain ing to-day. The invention of tile for draining has also been ascribed to England. This, how ever, is again a mistake Again it is the French who are ahead. A letter to the late John H. Klippart, written by a member of the French Agricultural Society, states that within the town of Maubeuge, France, stood a monastery, the date of the erection of which is not clearly known, but it is in the pure Gothic style. The lands attached to this monastery were renowned for their fertility. After the French Revolution the estate was sold. In excavations, made in the process of alterations, two regular systems of pipe drains were found laid at a depth of four feet, one with the pipes radiating to a sinking well, the other of pipes all parallel, ending at a collecting pipe, which discharged into the cellar. These pipes are represented as having been ten inches long, four inches in diameter, one end expanding into a funnel shape, the other taper ing into a cone, made of earthen ware, vitrified in burning, and evidently made in a lathe and by hand. Of the age of these drains, nothing is known, but a grave of 1620 was over one of the drains. The most interesting fact in reference to this piece of drainage is the masterly manner in which it was laid, to have remained draining the land perfectly for nearly three hundred years, and in dimensions, materials and system nearly like that of the present day; a most eloquent substantiation of the imperish able nature of properly laid underdrains, as it is of the fact that underdraining must be considered a permanent investment; and also that whatever the cost of first Tntl. work it is a wool in vestment upon all lands re quiring underdraining, provided always that the value of the crops raised will pay the cost. In other words, lands upon which draining will pay the interest of fifty dollars per acre, may be drained as a good investment. Elking ton, an English farmer, in 1793, is probably the first man who, in modern times, carried out a systematic plan of draining, the result of his dis coveries from time to time while engaged in exper iments in draining his lands. l et Elkington's skill, however, lay in the use of the auger to tap subterranean sources of water, that could not be reached by the ditches. From this came the idea, later, of boring through impervious strata, into a loose and dry one to get rid of surface water. The shape of the tile has long been a matter of discussion. The horse shoe tile, the worst possible shape, has long been abandoned. The sole, single and double prevents the rising of the bottom of the ditch into the tile, but so does the round tile. The objection to sole tile is their weight, and that they can not be fitted with collars when necessary. Hence, sole tile also have beery pretty much abandoned. The perfection of shape for the inside of tile is the egg shape, but, since all tile distort more or less in drying and burning, no tile that must be laid one particular side down, can be made to show perfect joints. Hence round tile, both as to the outside and inside, are now generally adopted. With these, joints sufficiently close may be had, rendering collars unnecessary, except in peculiar situations and soils In relation to the mains and their proper size, the lateral tiles running to them, may be quite small, two inch tile being the size generally used in the United States. If the drains are forty feet apart, the proper dis tance, except in the most tenacious clays, 1.000 tile per acre will be required. An important consideration in buying tile is that they should be smooth, hard burned, and give a clear, metallic sound on being struck. Tile, however, should not be so hard burned as to vitrify, or glaze. So all crooked tile should be rejected. In making a drain, as is sometimes required along a loose piece of land, or perhaps with laterals running from them, for the first 2,000 feet of drain two inch tile will generally suffice; for 7,000 to 10,000 feet three and a half inch tile will suffice, and for 20,000 feet of drain four inch tile will usually carry all the water. Experiments have shown that a one and a half inch tile, laid with a fall of one foot in each hundred feet, will discharge over 12,000 gallons in twenty-four hours, or equal to a rainfall per acre of 350 inches in a year„ or nearly nine times the average rainfall per acre in the United States. Yet six and even twelve inches have been known to fall in twenty-four hours, or twelve to twenty-four times the capacity of the pipe named. Yet this is of so rare occur rence that it is not worth considering. One inch in twenty-four hours is uncommon, hence, practically, a much smaller pipe than is usually considered necessary may be used. Another advantage of small pipes is, that the thorough flushing they sometimes get, serves to clear them entirely of sediment. Thus we have given the main points in draining, so any person should be able to lay underdrains where the fall is pal pable. In fine gradients we must have recourse to a drainage engineer, and to works especially devoted to drainage, remembering always that the cost of careful engineering is probably the best investment, where critical work is needed, and is cheaper than any other part of the outlay. As to the capacity of tile in carrying away water, so much depends upon inclination (fall) that tables are of but little practical value. It has been found, however, by experience, that laid at a depth of four feet, that one and a quarter inch pipes will carry away all the water of -a saturating rain in twenty-four hours, quickly enough for the good of the soil. This size will drain two acres. That two and a half inch tile will carry away the water from eight acres, and three and a half inch tile will carry the water of twenty acres. In closing this article, it seems necessary that the beginner be advised against making the ditches too wide, especially on the bottom. The ditch should not be wider on the bottom for small tile than four inches, and for no large tile should they be wider than the size of the tile. Thus for a ditch four feet deep to be dug entirely by hand, from sixteen to eighteen inches in width at the top is fully wide enough, provided the proper draining tools, long bitted narrow spades are used. These should be of the lighest possible description, combined with superior .temper, and may now be found at any respectable agricultural implement warehouses.