(5) Irrigation. In such a climate as that of Palestine, water is the great fertilizing agent. The rains of autumn and winter, and the dews of spring, suffice for the ordinary objects of agricul ture, but the ancient inhabitants were able, in some parts, to avert even the aridity which the summer droughts occasioned, and to keep up a garden-like verdure, by means of aqueducts com municating with the brooks and rivers (Ps. i :3; lxv :10: Prov. xxi ; Is. xxx :25 ; xxxii :2 ; 20; Hos. xiii :15). Hence springs, fountains and rivu lets were as much esteemed by husbandmen as by shepherds (Josh. xv:t9; Judg. i :15). The soil was also cleared of stones, and carefully culti• vated, and its fertility was increased by the ashes to which the dry stubble and herbage were occa sionally reduced by being burned over the surface of the ground (Prov. xxiv :3t; Is. vii :23 ; xxxii: 13). Dung, and, in the neighborhood of Jerusa lem, the blood of animals, were also used to en rich the soil (2 Kings ix :37; Ps. lxxxiii :1o; Is. xxv :10 ; Jer. hr :22 ; Luke xiv :34, 35).
That the soil might not be exhausted, it was ordered that every seventh year should be a sab bath of rest to the land ; there was then to be no sowing or reaping, no pruning of vines or olives, no vintage or gathering of fruits, and whatever grew of itself was to be left to the poor, the stranger and the beasts of the field (Lev. xxv :1-7; Dent. xv :I-to). But such an observance required more faith than the Israelites were prepared to exercise. It was for a long time utterly neglected (Lev. xxvi:34, 35; 2 Chron. xxxvi:24), but after the captivity it was more observed. By this re• markable institution theHebrewswere also trained to habits of economy and foresight, and invited to exercise a large degree of trust in the bounti ful providence of their Divine Kin.
(6) Fields. Under the term 10r, dagan, which we translate 'grain' and 'corn,' the Hebrews com prehended almost every object of field culture. Syria, including Palestine, was regarded by the ancients as one of the first countries for corn (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xviii :7). Wheat was abun dant and excellent, and there is still one bearded sort, the ear of which is three times as heavy, and contains twice as many grains, as our common English wheat (Irby and Mangles, p. 472). Bar ley was also much cultivated, not only for bread. but because it was the only kind of corn which was given to beasts, for oats and rye do not grow in warm climates. Hay was not in use, and therefore the barley was mixed with chopped straw to form the food of cattle (Gen. XXiV :25, 32 ; Judg. xix:t9, etc.). Other kinds of field culture were millet, spelt, various species of beans and peas, pepperwort, cummin, cucumbers, melons. flax and, perhaps, cotton. Many other articles
might be mentioned as being now cultivated in Palestine; but, as their names do not occur in Scripture, it is difficult to know whether they were grown there in ancient times, or not.
Anciently, as now, in Palestine and the East the arable lands were not divided Into fields by hedges, as in this country. The ripening products therefore presented an expanse of culture un broken, although perhaps variegated, in a large view, by the difference of the products grown. The boundaries of lands were therefore marked by stones as landmarks, which, even in patriarchal times, it was deemed a heinous wrong to remove (Job xxiv:2), and the law pronounced a curse upon those, who, without authority, removed them (Dent. xix :14; xxvii :17). The walls and hedges which are occasionally mentioned in Scripture be longed to orchards, gardens and vineyards.
Agricultural Operations.
Of late years much light has been thrown upon the agricultural operations and implements of ancient times, by the discovery of various repre sentations on the sculptured monuments and painted tombs of Egypt. As these agree sur prisingly with the notices in the Bible, and in deed differ little from what we find employed in Syria and Egypt, it is very safe to receive them as guides on the present subject.
(1) Plowing. This has always been a light and superficial operation in the East. At first, the ground was opened with pointed sticks; then a kind of hoc was employed; and this, in many parts of the world, is still used as a substi tute for the plow. But the plow was known in Egypt and Syria before the Hebrews became cultivators (Job i :14). In the East, however, it has always been a light and inartificial imple ment. At first, it was a little more than a stout branch of a tree, from which projected another limb, shortened and pointed. This, being turned into the ground, made the furrow ; while at the farther end of the larger branch was fastened a transverse yoke, to which the oxen were har nessed. Afterwards a handle to guide the plow was added. Thus the plow consisted of: r, the pole; 2, the point or share; 3, the the yoke. The Syrian plow is, and doubtless was. light enough for a man to carry in his hand (Russell's Nat. list. of Aleppo. i:73). We an nex a figure of the ancient Egyptian plow, which had the most resemblance to the one now n:ed, and the comparison between them will probably suggest a fair idea of the plow which was in use among the Hebrews. The following cut (front Sir Charles Fellowes' work on Asia Minor) shows the parts of a still lighter plow used in Asia Minor and Syria, with but a single handle, and with dif ferent shares according to the work it has tc execute.