Few historical records of the state of Babylonian A. have come down to us. We can only judge of its productiveness by the dense population that was supported in the plains boidering the Euphrates, where the summer climate is almost as arid as that of Egypt. That river also was subject to overflow, when the snows melted on the mountains of Armenia in summer. Further than this, however, we have no knowledge of the systems pursued or crops cultivated.
The scriptures are full of allusions to the opdrations of the husbandman in Palestine as well as in Egypt. The operations in the two countries necessarily formed striking contrasts—the crops in the former being chiefly dependent on the rains for growth; in the latter, on the inundations of the Nile. In the Holy Laud there are extensive plains of fertile soil which yielded the finest wheat. The hillsides were covered with vines and olives, often planted on terraces formed with much labor, to afford a larger mass of soil, in which the plants might flourish in the almost rainless summers. "I he valleys were -well watered, and afforded pasture for numerous flocks. Of the smaller cultivated plants, millet was the chief summer crop, but it was only cultivated to a limited extent, being confined to those spots that could be artificially watered. Wheat And barley were the chief cereals, as the winter rains were sufficient to bring them to maturity. The large number of inhabitants that Palestine supported under the Jews is the wonder of all mod ern travelers, who are struck with the ruins of ancient cities and the desolation of the country. The means of cultivation, however, disappeared with the inhabitants; and the destruction of the wood has added to the aridity of the climate. Concurring testimony indicates that the systems of cultivation were somewhat similar in all the countries bor dering on the Mediterranean, which are characterized by arid summers, and autumn and winter rains. Irrigation, therefore, was had recourse to wherever it was practicable.
The A. of Italy in the present day exhibits great contrasts in its condition; for while a garden-like cultivation is seen in Lombardy, the utmost rudeness and backwardness prevail in the southern parts of the peninsula. Into the social causes that have led to these results our limits forbid us to enter. The literature of the A. of the ancient Romans throws much light on the systems that then existed in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. As is well known, the wide-spread dominion of Rome rose out of a diminutive colony planted on the banks of the Tiber. In the time of the early kings, its original territory did not extend above five m. towards the Alban hills, and still less in other directions. Romulus is said to have divided a portion of his small ter ritory among his subjects, at the rate of little more than an acre to each. This allotment, granted in perpetuity, was not liable to be taxed, and could be sold by its owner. The whole territory was not assigned to the citizens, but the larger part was kept as domain lands, which yielded a revenue to the state, by being let to the wealthy classes. These
domain lands were either cultivated or allowed to remain in pasture. The common con ditions were that the occupants of the corn-land paid one tenth of the produce as rent; of vines and fruit-trees, one-fifth; and a moderate rate a head for sheep or cattle pastured. The occupants were merely tenants-at-will, and the state could resume and sell their lands at any time. A similar policy seems to have been pursued by the numerous states of ancient Italy. As these were all conquered in succession by the Romans, their lands became the property of the Roman state. Sometimes the inhabitants were wholy extir pated, or sold into slavery, and their lands were partly assigned to the poorer citizens engaged in the war; the remainder, which was always the much larger part, became domain lands. In other instances, only a portion of the lands was taken from the con quered nations; the former owners were allowed to retain them as tenants, paying the ordinary rent. Thus, froin the earliest times, two classes of cultivators were in existence —the small proprietors, and the wealthy tenants holding the lands of the state. Betwixt the two, there was almost a perpetual strife—the one demanded the distribution of the state domains, while the others constantly resisted it. Even after the Romans became masters of the whole of Italy, the citizens had little more than four acres of land assigned to each; and the domain lands increased enormously. Attempts were constantly made to restrict the extent of domain held by the patricians, but generally without effect. See AGRARIAN LAWS. The great extent of domain lands gave rise to the employment of slave-labor in their cultivation by the wealthy citizens. This led to the discouragement of small proprietors, so that the free population engaged in A. diminished throughout Italy. The evil was further aggravated by the policy that the Romans pursued towards the inhabitants of the conquered provinces: there none of the land was held as freehold, but it was solely vested in the Roman people, being all let out for the benefit of the state. On the conquest of Sicily, the wealthy Romans flocked over, and farmed the rents, as well as cultivated the lands by means of slave-labor. Indeed, the chief supplies of grain sent to Rome from Sicily, Sardinia and Carthage were raised by means of slaves. A. was long the only source of wealth open to the patricians; and it was deemed the most honor able of occupations. Its operations were then directed by men of wealth and learning; and no wonder that its literature was so copious, and held in so high estimation. Cato, the first and most celebrated agricultural writer (who d. aged 88, 150 n.c.), was in the middle period of life at the end of the second Punic war. The large farming system had then been fully established; and he gives us not only the most minute particulars regard ing the management of the slaves on his Sabine farm, but all the details of husbandry, from the plowing of the fallows to the reaping and threshing of the crop.