After the revolution of July,' marshal Bourmont resigned, and gen. Clausel was appointed his successor. The latter, who was a prompt and vigorous man, set about subduing the country, and giving it a regular government. His predecessor had com mitted a great mistake in driving out the Turks, who might have been usefully employed in subordinate functions of authority. After their banishment, the Kabyles and Bedouins, benching themselves emancipated from all subjection, and stimulated by intense fanati cism against the new conquerors, rose in rebellion, or rather commenced a series of pettrstruggles, which obstructed the colonization of A. for many years, and which can not be said to have altogether ceased even yet. The imposition of French laws and institu tions was made not in the wisest spirit, most of the old Turkish regulations being summa rily abrogated. Besides this, the natives were wounded in their most susceptible point. Their mosques and burying-grounds were frequently desecrated and destroyed ; and Maisel, whose vigor was more remarkable than his justice or prudence, confiscated—in direct contradiction to the very words of the capitulation—all the immovable property of the deys, and other exiled Turks, and of the townships, besides various religious institutions. The effect of these political crimes was instant. The entire provinces deter mined*bstinately to resist ; some even of the provincial rulers who had previously sub mitted, now appeared in arms again. Clausel was compelled to undertake a military expedition against the refectory boys ; but his uncertain successes only inflamed the hatred and patriotism of the Kabyles and Arabs, who opposed him energetically. A young emir at last appeared on the scene, Abd-el-Kader (q.v.), who soon became the rallying point of the jad (" holy war"), which the Marabouts had begun to preach. Under these circumstances, it became impossible for Clausel to carry out his scheme of colonization, and only a reckless speculation in land took place, which was in every way injurious. 'l'o strengthen his position, the French general, whose army was now greatly reduced, made a treaty with the bey of Tunis ; but the home-government disapproving of it, lie was recalled in consequence. His successor, gen. Bcrthez()ne, having achieved noth ing but defeat and disgrace in.spite of his cruelties, was also speedily recalled, and IL-gen. the duke of Rovigo appointed to the command. He arrived in Algiers on the 25th of Dee., 1831, and established a most severe and relentless system. He scrupled not to perpetrate the most arbitrary acts, cruelties, and treacheries. His two most remarkable actions were, first, the complete annihilation of the whole Arab tribe El-11ffia. when even old men, women, and children were massacred during the night, on account of a robbery‘committed by some of the members of the tribe ;.second, the exe cution of two Arab chiefs who were hostile to him, and whom he had treacherously allured into the city by the written promise of a safe-conduct. Such monstrous proceed ings fired the entire nation. The most peaceful tribes flew to arms, and the French were attacked on all sides. The emperor of Morocco, who secretly fomented the strife, and even meditated the conquest of Oran, assisted the fierce and impetuous Abd-el-Kader in his designs. The health of the duke now declined. He returned to France in March, 1833, and the administration of affairs was provisionally intrusted to gen. Avizard, who gained some credit by establishing the bureau Arabe. After the death of the duke, gen. Voirol, a man exactly the reverse of his predecessor, was made interim commander-in-chief. his efforts were more directed to promote the material interests of the colony, than to extend the power of France. He met with little opposition in the province of Algiers, and in the east ern districts; but, on the other hand, the war raged fiercely in the west,where Abd-el-Kader had either gained over or subdued all the tribes between Mascara and the sea. At length a treaty was effected with him, in which he pledged himself to make peace, and to deliver up all his prisoners. In return, he received a monopoly of the corn-trade, and the right to buy arms and ammunition in the French ports. Towards the end of 1834, the French government, having resolved to retain permanent possession of the colony, organized its administration anew, placing the supreme power, both civil and military, in the hands of a governor-general, who received his orders from the minister of war. Gen. Drouet d'Erlon was the first appointed to this high dignity. Under him there were a commander of the troops, a commander of the naval force, a military intendant, a civil intendant, and a director of finance. The administration of justice was also regu lated by the erection of many tribunals. Frenchmen and foreigners were to he subject to French laws, but the natives to their own. Moreover, the old Algerine courts of jus tice were still to be kept up. D'Erlon apparently desired, at first, to occupy himself with the internal administration of the regency, and, in truth, deserved much credit for the introduction of French municipal institutions, and the French system of education and police arrangements ; but a disgraceful defeat suffered by the French army at :Makta, on au expedition against Abd-el-Kader, who had secretly broken the treaty, caused the recall both tf the officer in command and of D'Erlon himself. Clausel was now sent back to A. with the title of marshal. He arrived on the 10th of August, 1835, his first anxiety being to wipe away the disgrace of the defeat at Makta. About three months after, he marched out at the head of 11,000 men, to attack Mascara, the center of Abd el-Kader's power : he had to fight many petty battles on his way, but was always suc cessful. On reaching Mascara, he resolved to set it on fire, which he did on the 8th Dec., and then commenced his retreat, in which his army suffered severely from bad weather, and from perpetual harassments by the enemy. Abd-el-Kader was soon more powerful than ever, and gen. Bugeaud had to be sent out from France with rein
forcements ; but nothing came of this save a few fruitless victories over Abd-el-Kader, which did the latter no real harm. Bugeaud was at length compelled to make peace on the 30th May, 1837. Abd-el-Kader recognized the sovereignty of France over the regency : he received, in return, the government of the provinces of Oran, Titeri, and Algiers, with the exception of the cities of Oran, Arzeu, Masagran, Mostaganem, Algiers, Blidah and Koleah, Sahel (or the " sea-coast"), and the plain of Metidja. In exchange for the city of Tlemzen, he delivered to the French army 60,000 sacks of corn, and 5000 oxen : he was likewise permitted to buy arms and ammunition in France. In Feb., 1837, marshal Clausel was recalled, and lt.-gen. Damremont succeeded him. The con dition of the colony was at this moment desperate, for the disgraces which followed the rash and even reckless measures of Clausel had everywhere lowered the prestige of the French army. The duty of the new governor-general was clear, but difficult : he had to wipe out the stain which attached to the honor of his soldiery, and to re-create the conviction of their superiority.. Ile first attacked the Kabyles of the province of Algiers, and chastised them with considerable severity, and then commenced his great work of taking Constantine, from which his predecessor had been compelled igneminiously to retire. In the month of May, with an army of 12,000 disciplined troops, besides .gtlarb (originally light infantry raised among the natives), bafaillons d'Afrique (convict-battal ions at first), the tiradleurs d'Afrique, and the Masseurs d'Afrique, as well as the Synths (a cavalry corps composed of native soldiers commanded by French officers), Damremon t i marched to the attack of Constantine, and, in spite of fearful weather, succeeded in storming the city on the 13th. This victory laid the foundation for the entire subjuga tion of the province of Constantine, which was completed in the course of the two fol lowing years without any great effort.
On Dee. 1, 1837, gen. Valee was appointed governor-general in the stead of Damr6mont, who had fallen at the storming of Constantine. He, like the others, mis understood the character of Abd-el-Kader when he considered it possible for him to remain quiet. New treaties were made, which only delayed hostilities. Meanwhile, the work of colonization went on in spite of numerous obstacles. The province of Constantine was much improved by the building of towns and the making of roads ; but suddenly, in Oct., 1839, Abd-el-Kader, whose power had now become formidable to an unprecedented extent, violated the treaty on an insignificant pretext, and fell upon i the unprepared French with an overwhelming force. The European settlements in the open plain were attacked and laid waste, bodies of French troops were surprised on their march and cut to pieces, small outposts and encampments were taken in a moment, and by the 24th of Nov. the dominion of the French was confined to the fortified cities and camps. Even the settlements in the plain of Metidja were lost. Forty thousand Arabs swept over it, and threatened Algiers itself. This state of things demanded energetic measures. The spring, campaign was vigorously opened on both sides : everywhere the French gained splendid successes ; while the heroic defense of the fort of Masagran, near Mostaganem (garrisoned by only 123 men), against from 12,000 to 15,000 Arabs, who stormed it incessantly, and with the utmost fury, for three days, raised the prestige of the invaders higher than ever. Still, however, nothing was really accomplished. After repeated bloody defeats, the native tribes again rushed to arms, swept the plains, and rendered life insecure at the very gates of Algiers. The only thing of any practical importance which took place during the whole year was the beginnino. of the circum vallation by which the fertile plain of Metidja was to be secured against the hostile in cursions of the Arabs. Marshal Valee was now recalled, and It.-gen. Buocaud appointed his successor. The latter arrived at Algiers on Feb. 22, 1841, and adopted a new system, which was completely successful. A brave, inexorable, and unscrupulous man, he resolved to employ any and every means for the attainment of his purpose. He wearied out the enemy by incessant razzias (predatory excursions) against individual tribes, cor rupted them (not a difficult thing to do) by all the arts of bribery, and on special occasions undertook great expeditions to annihilate the regular power of Abd-el-Kader, whose strong defensive positions be destroyed, and whose authority he spared no pains to undermine. The French army was raised to 80,000 or 100,000 men. Its operations were carried on from three principal points. Victory followed Bugeaud wherever he went. He relieved and victualed hard-pressed garrisons; intimidated the surrounding country; penetrated to Tckedempt—the very stronghold of Abd-el-Kader himself—which he laid in ashes ; marched thence to Mascara, which was also taken • and on all sides received the submission of the terrified Arabs. Even the hottest period of the summer was made use of. Bugcaud bribed and seduced from their allegiance those Arabs who were under the sway of The 'autumn campaign was for the time decisive. Saida, the last fortress belonging to the gallant emir, was utterly destroyed, and tow almost the entire country was subdued. Abd-el-Kader retired into Morocco, where he raised a new army, for his old one had been completely annihilated. He was, however, defeated by gen. Belleau, and again compelled to retreat into Morocco, from which, however, he issued a second time, in the summer of 1842, and coutrived to Maintain a fierce but desultory warfare, for two or three years, aided by the sultan of Morocco. At last, however, deserted by most of his followers, pursued by his late ally, and, in fact, hemmed in on all sides, he was forced to surrender to gen. Lamoriciere, at the close of Dec., 1847. See ABD-EL-KADER.