In geography, history, philosophy, medicine, physics, and mathematics, the Arabians rendered important services to science; and the Arabic words still employed in science— such as algebra, alcohol, azimuth, zenith, nadir, with many names of stars, etc.—remain as indications of their influence on the early intellectual culture of Europe. But geography owes most to them during the middle ages. In Africa and Asia, the bounda ries of geographical science were extended, and the old Arab treatises on geography and works of travels in several countries by Abulfeda, Edrisi, Leo Africanus, Ibu Batuta, Ibn Foslan, Ibn Jobair, Albiruni the astronomer, and others, are still interesting and valuable.
History was also studiously cultivated. The oldest Arabic historian of whom we know is Moliammed-al-Kelbi (d. in 819). About the same period, however, flourished several other historians. After the dawn of the 10th c., history became a favorite study of the Arabs. The first who attempted a universal survey of the subject were Masud', Tabari, Ham za of Ispahan, and Eutychius, the Christian patriarch of Alexandria. Masudi's work is entitled Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems. These were followed by Abulfaraj and George Elmakin (both Christians), Abulfeda, and others. Nuvairi wrote a History of Sicily under the Government of the Arabs. Various sections of Arabic his tories relating to the crusades have been translated into French. On the dominion of the Arabs in Spain, several works were written by Abul-Kasem of Cordova (d. in 1139), Temini, and others. For extended notices we may refer the student of Arabic literature to the translations by Quatremere and others; but especially to the Encylclopadischen Ucbcrsicht der Wissensehaften des Orients, by Von Hammer (2 vols. Leip. 1804).
Arabian theology and jurisprudence are intimately connected, and both founded on the Koran; but are by no means so simple and uniform as is generally supposed. Speculation first began to prevail during the Ommaiade dynasty, and the Aristotelian philosophy to be studied by the Arabs. As a consequence, the vague statements of the Koran were soon variously interpreted, and a host of sects gradually arose. Of these 4 only are regarded as orthodox, leaving not less than 72 heretical, whose discordant tenets are stated in the work of Sharistani (edited by Cureton, London, 1842). The four ortho dox sects are: the Hanefites, who do not reject tradition, but subordinate it to rational ism; the Shafites, who entirely refuse the aids of reason and philosophy in their treat ment of theology; the Kambalites and the Malechites, who allow speculation on points where there is no tradition. The collection of traditions known as the Sunna gives an
account of the sayings and doings of Mohammed, and, though pedantic hi its details, is in substance more valuable than the Koran. The interpretation of the Koran constitutes the principal part of education in theological jurisprudence. The most celebrated of the commentators arc Samaklishari and Baidhawi. The conquest of Algiers has rendered the study of Arabic or Mohammedan law indispensable to the French.. The result is, that several most important works on that subject have appeared of late from the Paris press, such as Precis de Jurisprudence Musulmane, selon le Rite Halechtte par Rhala-Thn Ishak (translated by Perron, Paris, 1848), and Lggislation Musulmane Sunnite, Rite Hanefl (Paris, 1848).
Arabian philosophy,. which was of Grecian origin, held the same relation to the Koran as the scholasticism of the middle ages did to the Christian Scriptures—that is, it was regarded as the servant of faith. The chief study of the Arabs was the writings of Aristotle, who became known in Spain, and aubsequentlp in all western Europe, through translations from Arabic into Latin; though the Arabs themselves only knew the Greek philosopher in translations made during the time of the Abassides. Especial attention was paid to logic and metaphysics. The most distinguished of their philo sophical writers are: Alkendi of Basra. who flourished about the beginning of the 9th c.; Alfarabi, who wrote a work on First Principles in 954; Avicenna (d. 1036), who corn billed the study of logic and metaphysics with that of medicine, and made considerable progress in chemistry, nosology, and medical botany; Ibn-Yaliya, who acquired a high reputation as an original thinker; Alghazali ( d. 1111), who wrote a book entitled the Destruction of all Idolatrous Philosophical Systems; Abubekr-ibn-Tofail (d. 1190), who taught in his philosophical novel Hai-thn-Yokdan (edited by Pococke, Oxford, 1671) the development of men from animals; and his pupil, Averrhoes, greatly esteemed as an expositor of Aristotle. For an account of these men and their systems, see Sur les Ecoles Philosophiques chez les Arabes, etc., by Schnffilders (Paris, 1842), and Ritter's (fiber unsere Ifenntni,ss der Arab. Philosophic (Gott. 1844); also Renan's Averroes et 1' Averroisme (1850).