Modern A. (styled by the Turks Athina or Setines) is now the capital of the new kingdom of Greece. Previous to the Greek revolution (1821), it was a provincial city of interior importance, the seat of a Greek metropolitan bishop, and under the jurisdiction of the Turkish governor in Eubcea. In 1821, the war of liberation commenced, and the Turks surrendered Athens in the following year; but again captured it in 1826, and took the acropolis in 1827. After this it was left in ruins until 1830, when Attica was declared united with Greece by the protocol of the London conference. In 1834, Otho, the son of the Bavarian monarch, who had been elected to the sovereignty of the new kingdom, removed his residence from Nauplia to A. Improvements now proceeded rapidly: Turkish manners and customs disappeared; the contemptible wooden houses and crooked streets were superseded by new ones—among which the Hermes, tp olus, Athene, and New Stadion streets are conspicuous; and, in 1836, the foundation of a new palace was laid, and it was completed in 1843. The municipal affairs of A. are now regulated by a mayor (demarchos) and council elected by the citizens. Modern A. has a gymna sium, a library enriched with many donations from France and Germany, and a uni versity, where about 52 professors and tutors are engaged. The number of students is about 1200. Several interesting works have been printed in A. The French govern ment has founded an archaeological institute, and several missionary societies have branches here. A. has several printing establishments, soap-works, leather-works, and silk and cotton factories. Pop. '71, 44,510.
Political History of A.—It was the Ionic race that manifested most signally the dis tinguishing characters of Greek civilization; and of this portibn of Hellas, A., in the brilliant part of its history, stands out most prominently. According to tradition, its political power was first established by Theseus, king of Attica, who made A. the metropolis. Here he instituted the great popular festival of the Panathentea. and, by encouraging settlements in the city, greatly increased its population. He divided the citizens into three classes: nobility, agriculturists, and mechanics. Until the death of Codrus in 1068 n.c., A. was governed by kings; afterwards, by archons elected from the nobility. The time of holding office was limited to 10 years in 752 B.C., and to 1 year in.683 B.C., when 9 archons were annually elected, one being called the archon eponyms, because the year was distinguished by his name. Here begins the authentic history of A. These archons, together with the council Of nobles, afterwards called the areopagus, exercised the whole power of the state, and administered justice. The Athenian govern ment was thus, like all other Hellenic governments, an oligarchy; but the changes intro duced by the archon Solon, 594 B.C., though remarkably moderate, laid the foundation of that democratic constitution which was afterwards perfected by Cleisthenes. The condition of the population at the time of Solon was one of extreme suffering and dis cord, arising chiefly from the oppressive execution, by the aristocratic archons, of the law of debtor and creditor. This law was of old extremely harsh in Greece as well as in Rome; it assigned the debtor that could not fulfill his contract as the slave of his creditor. The great part of the soil of Attica was in the hands of the rich, and the mass of the population, who tilled the lands as tenants, were either in hopeless arrears, or already, with their families, actual slaves. Driven to desperation, the populace were ready to rise in mutiny; the oligarchy were afraid or unable to enforce the laws; and thus it was agreed to confer dictatorial power on Solon, well known for his wisdom., integrity, and sympathy with the people, and allow him to solve the problem. The
disease being desperate, Solon applied the desperate remedy of abolishing existing con tracts, liberating those that had been reduced to slavery, and forbidding for the future any one from pledging his own person or that of a member of his family. Ile next reformed the political constitution by dividing the freemen into four classes, according to the, amount of their property. It was only the richer elasses•that paid taxes and were eligible to the offices of state; but all had votes in the assembly 'that elected the archons, and all sat in judgment on their past conduct, on the expiry of their year of office. The government, though still oligarchical, was thus modified by popular control. Its free operation was for some time (560-510 n.c.) interrupted by the usurpation of Peisistratus and his sons, whose tyranny, however, was mild and enlightened, the forms at least of the Solonian constitution being preserved.
On the banishment of the Peisistratidfc (510 n.c.), a further political reform was introduced by Cleisthenes. who extended the basis of the constitution, and rendered it essentially democratic. To Cleisthenes is ascribed the origin of the practice called ostracism (q. v.).
Then followed the brilliant period of the Persian war, when, out of the circumstances which had seemed to threaten destruction, A. rose to the highest point of power and prosperity. Miltiades at Marathon, and Themistocles at Salamis, gained the victories which infused new courage and enthusiasm into the Greek nation. The period between the Persian war and the time of Alexander the great, or from 500 to 336 no., was the most glorious in Athenian history; and in 414, Cimon and Pericles raised the city to its highest point of grandeur and beauty. But under Pericles, the beginning of a decline took place, through the decay of ancient morals and the Peloponnesian war, which ended in the capture of A. by the Lacechernonians. ' After this, A. retained only the shadow of its former power and dignity. The thirty appointed ministers of government were, in fact, so many tyrants, supported by the Lacedmmonian army. After eight months of despotism had been endured, the tyrants were expelled by Thrasybultis, a free constitution was restored to A., and a new period of prosperity commenced. But it was not destined to endure long; a formidable foe, Philip of Macedon, now appeared in the north. The Athenians having opposed him iu the Phocian war, Philip took from them several of their colonies. Then followed the defeat of the Athenians at Clueroncia (338 n.c.), a fatal blow to Greece. A. with other states became subject to Macedon. The free spirit of the citizens was broken, and in moral character they degenerated. After Alex ander's death, a fruitless attempt was made to regain their liberty. Antipater instituted an oligarchy of wealth. Soon afterwards, A. was taken by Cassander, and placed under the rule of Demetrius Phalereus, who employed his power wisely and beneficently. Once more the old constitution of A. was restored by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and a short inter val of independence was enjoyed, until the city was taken by Antigonus Gonatas. After liberating themselves from the dominion of Macedon, and joining the Achaian confed eracy, the Athenians were so misguided as to support Mithridates against the Romans. This last error was fatal. Sulla conquered A., destroyed the port of the Peirteus, and left only the appearance of liberty and independence, which entirely vanished in the time of Vespasian. Still, after the spirit of liberty and progress had departed, A. long remained safe from spoliation. The Romans, in their respect for Grecian pre-eminence in art and philosophy, and moved also by religious reverence, long regarded Athens as a captive too noble and beautiful to suffer any indignity.