NATIONAL EDUCATION. The general subject of education has been already treated under that head. By the term "national education" is understood (1) the means taken by the body of any nation, either through the state or other organizations, for educating the people ; (2) the objects which the nation ought to place before itself in its educational measures. These questions involve the whole inner and outer history of education, and are far ton large and important to be capable of such treatment, here as would convey accurate notions to the reader. All we can do is to glance slightly at the history of the two branches into which the subject divides itself. Among ancient nations, and among not it few nations now existing, education in any definite sense did not. and does not, exist for the masses of the people. The children grow up in reflective or unreflective imitation of their fathers. But at all times, nations which have quite emerged from the savage state, have had some more or less org 'nized scheme of education for the leisured and governing classes. The puipose kept in view in such education has been to fit the pupils to discharge certain duties of war or government. In addition to this, the priest hood had the education which 'their traditionary hymns, laws, and customs afforded. That man as such, apart from any special practical ends. should be educated, was an idea late of being recognized, and occurred first to the Greeks. to whom the world owes so much. But neither among them nor their imitators, the Romans, was the education of the masses of the people ever contemplated. _ Education, properly so called, was con fined to a few. In the centuries which succeeded the introduction of Christianity, the church was the great educating body—training those intended for the service of the altar, not only in Christian doctrine, but in all the learning of the past. This, at least, was the general tendency of education in the church. But it was not till the reforma tion in the 16th c. that learning, even to the limited extent of reading and writing, was considered a worthy object of pursuit by any save those who, in some form or other, were destined to be drawn within the clerical ranks. The reformation introduced the idea of educating the masses of the people—the leaders of this movement being, no doubt, forced to this conclusion by the necessity which their view of man's personal religious obligations imposed on them. It was manifestly a corollary from the position
they took up that every 7111.171' 8 intellect should be so trained as to be able to read, and inquire, and dank for itself. It was only very slowly that so large a conception of the sphere of educauon could be given effect to. Gradually, however, popular schools arose in many parts et the continent of Europe, especially in Germany, and the number of gymnasia or grammar-schools was, during the same period, increased. In Scotland, so early as 1693, the government took up the matter, and ordained that there should be a school as well as a e:mrch in every parish, at the same time providing for their mainte nance by a tax on land, and for their management by putting them under a certain num ber of those who paid the tax conjoined with the minister of the parish—all being sub ject to the presbyteries within whose bounds they were situated. The example of Scot land cannot be said to have been followed on anything like a national scale by any country till after the French revolution had exhausted itself. Since 1819, the distinguish idea of government administration may be said to be the necessity of educating the people, and all the people—even the outcast and the criminal. During the last fifty years, all the German states, and more especially Prussia and Saxony, have developed excellent national systems of education, and France has followed their example. Russia and the new kingdom of Italy are also now organizing primary instruction; and at the same time, as in all European countries, they are makino. provision for the instruction and professional trailing of the teachers in normal schools (q.v.) The schools for instruct ing the middle classes. and grammar schools (French, lyeges; German, oymnasiums), whose object is to prepare pupils for the universities, have received increased attention. Universities themselves, too, have been further developed, their curriculums extended in range, their elevated, and their number increased.