After (1) "instruments of right notion," and (2) "the objects of inquiry," the Nytlya proceeds to the investigation of the following topics.
3. Doubt (sane s' aya). It arises from unsteadiness in the recognition or non-recogni tion of some mark, which, if we were sure of its presence or absence, would determine the subject to be so or so, or not to be so or so; but it may also arise from conflicting testimony. 4. .3fotive (prayojana), or that by which a person is moved to action. 5. A familiar case (dr' ish'teinta), or that in regard to which a man of an ordinary and a man of a superior intellect entertain the same opinion. ' 6. Tenet or dogma (siddlainta). It is either " a tenet of all schools," i.e., universally acknowledged, or "a tenet peculiar to some school," i.e., partially acknowledged; or "a hypothetical dogma," i.e., one which rests on the supposed truth of another dogma; or " an implied dogma," i.e., one the cor re2tness of which is not expressly proved, but tacitly admitted by the Ny5ya. 7. The different members (avayava) of a regular argument or syllogism (nydya). 8. Confuta tion or reduction to absurdity (tarlin). It consists in directing a person who does not apprehend the force of the argument as first presented to him, to look at it from an oppo site point of view. 0. Ascertainment (nine aya.) It is the determination of a question by hearing both what is to be said for and against it, after having been in doubt. The three next topics relate to the topic of controversy, viz. 10. Discussion (edda), which is defined as consisting in the defending by proofs on the part of the one disputant, and the contro verting, it by objections on the part of the other, without discordance in respect of the principles on which the conclusion is to depend; it is, in short, an honest sort of discus sion, such, for instance, as takes place between a preceptor and his pupil, and where the debate is conducted without ambition 9f victory. 11. Wrangling (jalpa), consisting in the defense or attack of a proposition by means of tricks, futilities, and such like Means; it is therefore a kind of discussion where the disputants are merely desirous of victory, instead of being desirous of truth. 12. Caviling (vitan't110, when a man does not attempt to establish the opposite side of the question, but confines himself to carping disingenu ously at the arguments of the other party. 13. Fallacies, or semblances of reasons (lictrZheisa), five sorts of which are distinguished, viz. the erratic, the contradictory, the equally available on both sides, that which. standing itself in the need of proof, does not differ from that which is to be proved, and that which is adduced when the time is not that when it might have availed. 14. Tricks, or unfairness in disputation (chluda), or the opposing of a proposition by means of assuming aidifferent sense from that which the objector well knows the propounder intended to convey by his terms. It is distin guished as verbal misconstruing of what is ambiguous, as perverting, in a literal sense, what is said in a metaphorical pne, and as generalizing what is particular. 15. Futile o5jections (jei ti), of which twenty-four sorts are enumerated; and, 16. Failure in argu ment or reason of defeat (nigretha-sthana), of which twenty-two distinctions are specified.
The great prominence given by the Nyaya to the method, by means of Which truth might be ascertained, has sometimes misled European writers into the belief, that it is merely a system of formal logic, not engaged in metaphysical investigations. But though
the foregoing enumeration of the topics treated by it could only touch upon the main points which form the subject-matter of the Nyaya, it will sufficiently show that the Nyilya intended to be a complete system of philosophical investigation; and some ques tions, such as the nature of intellect, articulated sound, etc., or those of genus, variety, and individual, it has dealt with in a masterly manner, well deserving the notice of western speculation. That the atomistic theory has been devolved from it, will be seen under the article VAIS'ESHIKA. On account of the prominent position, however, which the method of discussion holds in this system, and the frequent allusions made by Euro pean writers to a Hindu syllogism, it will be expedient to explain how the Nybya define!. the "different members of a syllogism" under its seventh topic. A regular argument consists, according to it, of live members—viz. a. the proposition (pratUnti), or the dec laration of what is to be established ; b. the reason (hetn), or " the means for the estab lishing of what is to be established;" c. the example (u deiharan' a), i.e. some familiar exec illustrating the fact to be established, or, inversely, some familiar case illustrating the impossibility of the contrary fact; d. the application (upanaya), or " restate ment of that in respect of which something is to be established;" and e. the conclu sion (nigaraana), or "the re-stating of the proposition because of the mention of the reason." An instance of such a syllogism would run accordingly thus: a. This hill fiery, b. for it smokes, c. as a culinary hearth, or (inversely) not as a lake, from which vapor is seen arising, vapor not being smoke, because a lake is invariably devoid of tire; d. accordingly, the hill is smoking; e. therefore, it is fiery.
The founder of the Nyilya system is reputed under the name of Gotama, or, as it also occurs, Gaetama (which would mean a descendant of Gotama). There is, however, nothing as yet known as to the history of this personage or the time when he lived, though it is probable that the work attributed to him is, in its present shape, later than the work of the great grammarian Priu'ini. It consists of five books or Adhyliyas, each divided into two "days," or diurnal lessons, which are again subdivided into sectiolis or topics, each of which contains several aphorisms, or attl'a8. See SOTo.A. Like the text-books of other sciences among the Hindus, it has been explained or annotated by a triple set of commentaries, which, in their turn, have become the source of more popular or eletnentary treatises.—The Sanskrit text of the Sfitras of Gotama, with a commentary by Viiwandtha,, has been edited at Calcutta (1828); and the first four books, and part of the fifth, of the text, with an English version, an English commentary, and extracts from the Sanskrit commentary of VisWanatha, by the late Dr. J. R. Ballantyne (Attalla bad, 1850-54). This excellent English version and commentary, and the celebrated Essay on the Nyfiya, by H. T. Colebrooke (Transactions of the Royal ilsiatk, society, vol. i. Land. 1827; and reprinted in the Miscellaneous Essays, vol. i. Lond. 1837), are the best guide for the European student who, without a knowledge of Sanskrit, would wish to familiarize himself with the Nytlya system.