Constitution and Administration.—The government is an unlimited monarchy, the bead of which is the emperor, who unites in himself every authority and power—that is to say, is the head of the military, the legislative, and the judicial systems, and is also the ecclesiastical chief of the orthodox Greek church. The order of succession is by primogeniture, hereditary in heirs-male, and in females in default of males. The expenses of the 'imperial house amount to about £1,500,000 annually; the private prop erty of the imperial family, yielding about £1.000,000 annually, is excluded from the budget. Every military or civil officer of the crown is required to take an oath of alle giance. The council of state is the highest branch of the executive, and comprehends the legislative, judicial, and administrative powers. The president and members—among whom are always included the ministers of the crown—are appointed by the emperor. A secretary of state, whose duty it is to report the opinion of the council to the emperor, is attached to this body. The estimates of expenditure and income, and every propo sition introducing an addition to, or a modification of, the laws, is considered and revised by this council, which for the more orderly discharge of its functions, is divided into three sections: 1. Law; 2. Civil and ecclesiastical; 3. Economy and finance. The main function of the council is that of superintending the general administration, of watching over the execution of the laws of the realm, and of proposing alterations of the same when necessary. The second of the great boards of government is the senate, whose functions are partly deliberative and partly executive. It is the high court of 'justice for the empire, controlling all the inferior tribunals; and besides its legal duties, it examines into the state of the public revenue and expenditure. The senate is divided into seven committees or departments, of which five sit at St. Petersburg and two at Moscow. The third college is the holy synod, superintending the religious affairs of the empire. Its decisions have no force till approved by the emperor. The fourth great board of government is the committee of ministers, the highest administrative body. It is divided into nine departments, which have under their management the court; foreign affairs; war; the navy; the interior: public instruction; finances; crown domains; pub lic works; and has besides a general board of control. All of these great boards center in the private cabinet of the empire. Except the departments of foreign affairs and the imperial court, all these branches of the central administration are represented in the provinces. European Russia is divided into 50 provinces, over each of which is a gov ernor, appointed by the emperor, and who is the head of the civil administration of the province or government. Some provinces, although administered by governors, are united under the superintendence of a governor-general. This arrangement is rendered necessary owing to the immense extent of the empire, and the governor-generalships are generally remote frontier regions. Of late years (especially since 1862), reforms have been effected throughout all the various branches of the government. Reforms in the municipal and rural administration of the provinces have given increase of self-govern ment. A new legal system, including oral testimony, trial by jury, and publicity of courts, was introduced in 1864. By the Russian law, capital punishments are only inflicted for high-treason. The severest punishments inflicted for violations of the law (see KNotiT) are labor in the galleys, in the public works, deportation to the mines of Siberia, etc. The audacity of the revolutionary party known as nihilists (see Numism) has caused of late increased rigor and frequency of political punishment. Repeated and fatal attempts on the life of high-placed officials, and the acquittal by a jury of one of the most notable assassins, led in 1878 to the withdrawal of trials for political offenses from juries; such trials are now conducted by court-martial.
Distinctive Rank of Classes.—The nobility occupy the highest place in the social scale, enjoy many special privileges, such as freedom from poll-tax, and form in every prov ince a separate body, headed by a marshal, chosen by and from themselves. Till 1871
they were also free from the conscription. Functionaries, officials, artists, and clergy possess almost as many privileges as the nobility. In 1868 a most important measure was passed, by which the clerical character was declared to be no longer hereditary, and the sons of the secular clergy, hitherto bound to some ecclesiastic or monastic service; were set free to choose their own career. The next class is that of the merchants. The burghers and peasants constitute the lowest class, and are subject to claims of service and to personal taxation. Each class enjoys, to a certain extent. the right of self-admin istration in its own affairs. Each apportions its taxes, and chooses some of its own functionaries. The recent emancipation gave freedom to 20,000,000 peasants or serfs who, prior to the year 1861, being governed exclusively by their owners, enjoyed very limited civil rights. Communal government is the fundamental principle of all the rights of the peasant class. In general, the lands allotted to the peasants are not their indi vidual property, but belong to the commune, and are shared among all its members.
National national debt must be regarded as divided into two parts, one of which represents the loans made abroad, and the other the loans made at home. Its total amount was given in 1878 at S:350,000,000, about half of which was contracted abroad. Several recent loans have been raised in order to tide over the terrible financial stress produced by the late war with Turkey, the expenditure for which has been officially stated (greatly understated, ie is believed) at £130,000,000.
Revenue and Evpenditure.—The following table shows the amount and the details of the revenue and expenditure for the year 1872: The total revenue for 1876 was over £76,900,000, and the expenditure £7S,775,000, leaving a deficit of more than £1,800,000.
a small permanent force was in existence from very early times, a standing army was first instituted in Russia toward the close of the 17th c. by Peter the great. Before that time, military levies were raised for longer or shorter periods, to suit the exigencies of the moment. Till lately the army was raised by conscription under an imperial ukase; but in 1870 an imperial ukase announced the principle of universal liability to military service,- and another in 1874 reorganized the entire military system. There is an annual conscription to which all men who have completed their 21st year, and are not physically incapacitated, are liable. Substitution is prohibited. The period of service in the army is 15 years, six in active service, and nine in the army of reserve. During the latter period, the soldier is liable to service only in time of war. To enable the educated classes to free themselves from compulsory conscription, young men suf ficiently educated may enter on a short period of service from their 17th year. On Jan. 1, 1863, the standing army, including the guard, consisted of 31,110 generals, staff, and commissioned officers, and 818,105 privates and non-commissioned officers. This force was divided into 008 battalions of infantry, 313 squadrons of cavalry, and 182 batteries of artillery. Besides this establishment, there were 300,000 irregular troops, consisting of Cossacks, Kirghiz, Circassians, and other contingents, who are liable to military ser vice in lieu of paying taxes. The law of 1874 thoroughly remodeled the whole military organization of the Cossacks, who now form in time of peace a perfectly organized body of men, easily attached to the cavalry division in time of war. In peace they have 21 regiments and 8 horse-batteries, increased in war to 62 and 22 respectively. The grand duchy of Finland has a military system of its own. The Russian army, on the peace footing, consisted, in 1879, of about 770.000 men, of whom about 470,000 belonged to the regular army. and 300,000 to the reserve. In time of war the number can be raised to 1,500.000. (For further details see A RMEES, MouEnN.) The expenditure for the army, as set down in the estimates for 1876, was £25,752,430.