Ed ueation. —Education is compulsory in Prussia, and its management and direc tion are under the control of the state. In no country are better or ampler means supplied for the diffusion of knowledge among all classes of the community. Prussia has ten universities—viz., KOnigsberg, Berlin, Greifswald, Breslau, Halle, Grittingen, ,,111unster, Bonn, Kiel, and which, in June, 1875, numbered 881 professors and le:milers, and 7,783 students. The Prussian schools are divided into eleven classes—viz., 1. Elementary, embracing village or town schools; 2. Bargerschulen, or citizen schools; 3. Real-sehulen, or schools in which arts, sciences, and languages are taught; 4. Semi naries, or schools for training elementary school-masters; 5. Gymnasien, or lnigh-sehools for classical education; 6. Inclustrtal schools; 7. Schools of architecture; 8. tchools of mines; 9. Schools of agriculture; 10. Veterinary schools; and, 11. Universities. At the end of 1874, there were in Prussia 34,089 elementary schools, with 55,585 teachers and 3 992,323 pupils. The management of the elementary national schools is in the Lauds of the local communities; but state appoints the teachers, and in part pays their salaries, the remainder being supplied by the public. In addition to the libraries of the several universities, there is the royal library at Berlin, with 700,000 volumes and about 15,000 MSS. Among the numerous scientific, artistic, and literary schools and societies of Prussia, the following are some of the more distinguished: the academy of arts, founded in 1699; the royal museum of arts; the academy of sciences; the natural history, geographical, and polytechnic societies of Berlin; the antiquarian society of Stettin; the Isreslau natural history and historical societies, etc.
highest court of law is the upper tribunal in Berlin, and each province leis its special court. of appeal. Besides these there are 125 magisterial, 7 commercial, :),A1 numerous military courts. In the Cologne district, the code Napoleon is in force, and in Ilither-Pomerania, the common German latt•; but in other parts of the kingdom the Prussian code (Landrecnt fur die Preussischen &oaten), compiled under Frederick the treat's direction, and introduced in 1794, is followed. A new petal code was promul gated in 1850, by which all pre-existing seigniorial, municipal, or ecclesiastical rights of decreeing punishments were unconditionally abrogated. Members of the royid family are amenable to special laws and courts. Lesser courts for the settlement of minor debts and disputes, and juries, have been introduced in every province of late years, and pub licity is demanded by the constitution in the conduct of criminal cases. The administra tion of military matters is under the control of the minister of war; military courts are presided over by two civil and three military officers, and are subordinate to the local provincial courts of appeal.
Army, _Nary, etc.—lu July, 1876, the strength of the Prussian army on a peace-foot according to official returns, numbered 319,824, of whom 53,294 cavalry and t)6,690 artillery. On the war-footing, the numbers can be raised to 900,000. The army consists of the regular troops and the landwehr (q.v.), and in time of war an extra force can be called up under the title of the landsturm. Every able-bodied male Prussian is liable to be called upon to serve between 20 and 36 years of age (see GERMANY). Men nonites (see ANABM'T1STS), clergymen of the Boman Catholic and Evangelical churches, and indispensable supporters of families are exempt. The time of active service is three years for sonic branches of the service and two for others. In peace, the army lies distributed over 309 garrison towns and 29 fortresses, of which latter the following are fortified places of the first rank: Mainz, Coblenz (with Ehrenbreitstein), Cologne, Konigsberg, Matlgeburg, Spandau, and Posen. Great care is bestowed on the education and military training of officers and men; and besides numerous admirable academies, there are several good schools of operative and veterinary surgery, etc., connected with the educational department of the army. The navy of the German empire is the navy of Prussia. See GERMANY.
Constitution, etc.—Prussia was an absolute monarchy till the crisis of 1848, when the
decided movement in favor of liberal views compelled the late king to convoke a national assembly, and submit to the establishment of a constitutional form of government, which has been repeatedly modified. The national representative body consists of two bodies. 1. An upper chamber (herrenhaus, or "house of lords"), which is now com posed of the princes of the royal family who are of age, the chiefs of the mediatized princely houses,'recognized by the congress of Vienna, and numbering 16 in Prussia, the heads of the territorial nobility (about 50), life-peers chosen by the king from the class of rich land-owners, manufacturers, and "national celebrities," a titled representa tive chosen by all land-owners in each of the Prussian provinces, representatives of the universities, the burgomasters of all towns having more than 50,000 inhabitants, and an indefinite number of members appointed by the king for life or for a limited period. 2. A. lower chamber (abgeordnetenkaus, or " chamber of deputies "), composed of 432 mem bers, 352 for the old kingdom and 80 for the provinces annexed in 1867. Every Prussian who has attained his 25th year, and who has a municipal vote, has also a parliamentary vote, but not a direct one. Out of every 250 uricahler, or electors in the first instance, is chosen a wohlmann, or direct elector. This is the man who, strictly speaking, voles for a member of parliament. Representatives are elected for three years. In addition to this general house of assembly, there are representative bodies for the provinces, communes, and circles, which debate and legislate in regard to local matters within their several departments. The council of state is composed of 8 ministers, under whose ministries are numerous departments, embracing almost every conceivable subdivision of foreign policy or internal legislation, since nothing can be done in Prussia indepen dently of the,state. By the modified constitution of 1850, all exclusive privileges arising from titles or station are abrogated, and perfect equality in the eye of the law fully recognized; liberty of the subject guaranteed in regard to religious persuasion, the right to hold meetings, unarmed, within closed doors, and become members of societies; immunity- from domiciliary visits, and inviolability of letters, etc. The monarchy is hereditary in the male line. The sovereign and royal family must profess the evangel ical confession of faith. The king, who is not responsible for the measures of his gov ernment, and whose decrees require the countc7-signatures of his ministers, exercises the executive power. nominates and dismisses the ministry, summons and dissolves die chambers, orders the promulgation of the laws, is commander-in-chief of the forces, has the right of proclaiming peace and war, granting reprieves, etc. lie bears the titles of king of Prussia, markgraf of Brandenburg, sovereign-duke of Silesia, prince of Orange, grand-duke of Pomerania and the Lower Rhine, beside a host of lesser titles. The title "emperor of Germany." by which he is now best known, is not, of course, a Prussian dignity. The arms of Prussia are composed of four central shields, borne on the great shield of 4S fields, representing the different territories incorporated in the Prussian monarchy. The black eagle on a field argent, surmounted by the open crown, is the special cognizance of Prussia proper. The national colors are black and white; the standard is white, bearing the Prussian crowned eagle and an iron cross in the right corner. The eldest sou of the king bears the title of crown-prince. The ordinary royal residences are the palaces at Berlin, Potsdam, and Charlottenburg. The royal domains were ceded to the state by Frederick-William III. in 1820, on condition of a rental of 2i millions dialers being paid first from them for the king and Ids family, which, however, has been largely increased of late years by means of a Airondotation ("crown-allowance"). Among the numerous military orders, the following deserve notice: The order of the swan, founded in 1443, and that of the black eagle, founded in 1701, regarded as of the highest dignity.