PYTHAG'ORAG. The life of this celebrated man, the founder of what is known at; the Italic school of philosophy, has been so greatly obscured by the mass of legends and incredible stories which gathered in later ages round his name that it is very difficult to arrive at anything like certainty regarding his history and character. That he was a native of the island of Samos, the son of Ninesarchus, a merchant, or, according to other accounts, a signet-engraver, we know on good authority. The date of his birth is very uncertain, but is usually placed about the year 570 B.C.; and all authorities agree that he flourished in the times of Polycrates and Tarquinius Superbus (540-510 n.c.). He is said to have been a disciple of Pherecydes of Syros, of Thales, and Anaximander, and, like other illustrious Greeks, to have undertaken extensive travels for the purpose of adding to his knowledge, in the course of which—lasting, we are told,.for nearly 30 years—he visited Egypt (bringing with him, according to the usual story, letters of introduction from Polycrates to Amasis the king) and the more important countries of Asia, including even India. We have every reason to believe that he did, at all events, visit Egypt, and there availed himself of all such mysterious lore as the priests could be induced to impart, from whom possibly he learned the doctrine of metempsychosis, or the transmigration of souls (which was, as is well known, one of the most famous tenets of the Pythagorean/school), and whose influence may perhaps he traced in the mystic rites, asceticism, and peculiarities of diet and clothing which formed some of its chief characteristics—though we may consider it as nearly certain that his philosophic and religious system was much less indebted to the influence of other countries than the ancients generally believed. During his travels, we may believe, Pythagoras matured the plans which he afterward carried into action; but finding, on his return to his native island, that the tyranny established there. by Polycrates unfitted it for his abode, lie quitted Santos, and eventually settled in the city of Croton, in southern Italy. Here he is said to have acquired in a short time unbounded influence over the inhabitants, as well as over those of the neighboring state; and here he established the famous Pytha gorean fraternity, or order, which has often been compared with the still more celebrated order founded by Ignatius Loyola in modern times. The adherents of Pythagoras were chiefly found among the noble and the wealthy; these, to the number of 300, he formed into a select society, bound by a sort of vow to himself and to each other, for the pur pose of studying the philosophical system of their master and cultivating the ascetic observances and religious rites enjoined by him. They thus formed at once a philo sophical school and a religious brotherhood, which gradually assumed the character and exercised the power of a political association also. This political influence, which undoubtedly became very great, was constantly exerted on the side of aristocracy; and to carry out the principles of this form of government, understood in the best sense of the word, seems to have been the ultimate aim of Pythagoras. He is said also to have increased his influence by a practice unknown to the other sages of the ancient world— the admission of women, not probably into his society, but to attendance on his lectures and teaching. Of the internal arrangement and discipline of this fraternity we really
know but little. All accounts agree that what was done and taught among the members was kept a profound secret from the outer world. In the admission of members, Pythagoras is said to have exercised the greatest care, and to have relied much on his skill in physiognomy. They then bad, it is said, to pass through a long period of pro bation, intended apparently to test especially their powers of endurance and self restraint—though probably the assertion that they had to maintain silence for two, or even five years, is an exaggeration of later times. Among the members of the society we are told there were several gradations, and there was also a more general division of his disciples under the names esoteric and exoteric—the former being applied to all were admitted to the more abstruse doctrines and sublimer teaching of their master; the latter, to those who received only the instruction open to all. The mode of life seems to have been regulated by Pythagoras in its minutest details. It is well known that be is said to have forbidden all animal food—a consequence, perhaps, of the doctrine of metempsychosis—and also particularly beans (but these statements cannot be relied on), and there is no doubt that temperance of all kinds was strictly enjoined. In the course of instruction, great attention was paid to mathematics, music, and astronomy; and gymnastics formed an important part. of the training. Religious teaching was incul cated in the so-called Pythagorean orgies, or mysteries; and while lie outwardly con formed to the usual mode of worship, there is reason to believe that in secret he taught a purer faith. The result of the whole system seems to have been an unbounded reverence on the part of the disciples for their master (of which the well-known ipse dixit is a sufficient attestation); in the members of the order an elevated tone of character, ‘e:afibited in serenity of mind and self-possession, extreme attachment to each other, and :also supreme contempt for all the outer world. But it was natural that political power, exercised in one direction by au aristocratic and exclusive society such as this, should in the end excite a wide-spread feeling of jealousy and hatred, which at length, when opportunity was given, caused the overthrow of the fraternity. A war between the cities of Croton and Sybaris, iu which the Pythagoreans took a prominent part, ended in the total destruction of the latter city (510 B.c.); and on this success they seem to have presumed so greatly, that they proceeded to more active measures against the popular party than they had yet attempted. A violent out break was the consequence; house in which the leading Pythagoreans were assembled was set on fire, and many perished in the flames. Similar coinmotious ensued in other cities of southern Italy in which Pythagorean clubs had been formed, and the result was that, as a political the Pythagorean order was everywhere suppressed; though, as a philo sophical sect, it continued to exist for many years after. Of the fate of Pythagoras himself different accounts are given; but he is generally supposed to have escaped to Metapontum, and died there (504 u.c.), where his tomb was shown in the time of Cicero.