2. ExterrudIlisto?7l.—The external history of Rome, from the establishment of the republic to the abolition of the decemvirate, is, it need hardly be said, purely military. The Romans fought incessantly with their neighbors. Long before the close of the regal period they had acquired, as we have seen, the leadership of Latium, and in all the early wars of the republic they were assisted by their allies and kinsmen; sometimes also by other nations—as, for example, the Hernicans, between whom and the Romans and Latins a league was formed by Spurius Cassius in the beginning of the 5th c. B.c. The most important of these wars were those with the southern Etruscans, especially the Veientines, in which, however, the Romans made no way, and even suffered terrible disasters, of which the legend concerning the destruction of the Fabian gens on the Cremera (477 B.c.) may be taken as a distorted representation; the contemporaneous wars with the Volscians, in which Coriolanus is the most distinguished figure; and those with the YEqui (458 B.c.), to which belongs the fine legend of Cincinnatus (q.v.).
From the Abolition of the Decemvirate to the Defeat of the Sa-mnites, and the Subjugation of all the " Italians" (449-265).-1. Internal leading political features of this period arc the equalization of the two orders, and the growth of the new aristocracy of capitalists. After the abolition of the deeemvirate, it would seem—judging from the course of events—that the whole of the plebeian aristocracy, senators and capitalists (from motives of selfish aggrandizement) combined with the "masses" of their order to make a series of grand attacks on the privileges of the old Roman noblesse. The struggle lasted for 100 years; and ended, as it could only end, by the removal of all the social and political disabilities under which the plebeians had labored—though the stratagems and artifices to which the old aristocracy had recourse proved the reluctance with which they succumbed to fate. First in 445 B. c., only four years after the fall of the decem virs was carried, the lex Canuleia, by which it was enacted that marriage between a patrician and plebeian should be legally valid. At the same time, a compromise was effected with respect to the consulship. Instead of two patrician consuls, it was agreed that the supreme power should he intrusted to new officers termed "military tribunes with consular power," who might be chosen equally from the patricians or plebeians. Ten years later (435 B. c.)tbe patricians tried to render the new office of less consequence by the transference of several of the functions hitherto exercised by consuls to two special patrician officers named censors (q.v.). The " censorship," Illommsen remarks, " gradually became the palladium of the aristocratic party, less on account of its financial influence, than for the sake of the right annexed to it of filling up vacancies in the sen ate and in the equites." In 421 B.c., the qumstorship (see QUIESTOR) was thrown open to the plebeians; in 3G8 n.C., the mastership of the horse; in 856 me., the dictatorship (see DICTATOR); in 351 inc., the censorship; iu 337 B.C., the prietorship (see PnAsrou.); and in 300 B.C., the pontifical and angurial colleges. These victories were not all won without the shedding of blood, How great was the exasperation of the patricians may be estimated from the story of Spurius Maelilts, the rich plebeian, who was murdered simply because in a season of famine be sold corn at a very low price to the poor.
The only effect, it is to observed, of these political changes was to increase the power of the rich plebeians; and consequently, the social distress continued to show itself as before. No genuine national concord was possible so long as that remained unmitigated. Efforts were repeatedly made by individuals to remedy the evil, but without success. Such were the attempts of the tribunes Spurius Maecilius and Spurius Metilius (417 n.e.) to revive the agrarian law of Spurius Cassius; and of the noble and patriotic patrician, Marcus Manlius, who, 'though he had saved the capitol during the terrible Gallic siege. was hurled front the Tarpeiau Rock(384 s.c.), on the customary charge, as ground less in his case as it was base, of aspiring to the monarchy; but at length (367 me.), after a furious struggle of eleven years, the fatuous Lieininu rogations (see AGRARIAN Law) were carried, by means of which it was hoped that an end had been put to the disastrous dissensions of the orders. Thus, at least, we interpret the act of the dicta tor Camillus, who raised a temple to the goddess Concord, at the foot of the capitol.
That these laws operated beneficially on the class in whose interest they were passed, viz., the plebeian-farmers or middle-class of the Roman state, is unquestionable; but events proved that they were inadequate to remedy the evil, and after a time they ceased to be strictly enforced. On the other hand, there can hens little doubt that, owing partly to these changes, and still more to the splendid and far-reaching conquests achieved in Italy during this period of internal strife by the Roman arms, the position of the plebeian farmer was decidedly raised. Not only were the "general coffers filled " the revenue drawn directly or indirectly from the subjugated lands, so that a tributunt (a forced loan) seldom required to be enforced at home, but the numerous colonies which Rome now to send forth to secure her new acquisitions, consisted entirely of the poorer plebeians, who always 'received a portion of the land in the district where they were settled. The long struggle between the two orders was thus virtually at an end; but the date usually assigned to the termination of the strife is 2S0 B.C., when the lax Hortensia was passed which confirmed the Publilian laws of 339 n.c., and definitely gave to the plebiscita passed at the comitia of the tribes, the full power of laws binding on the whole nation. Gradually, however, by steps which we have not room to trace, the importance of the popular assemblies declined, and that of the senate rose. This was owing mainly to the ever-increasing magnitude of the Roman state, and to the consequent necessity of a powerful governing body. The senate, it will be remembered, originally possessed no administrative power at all, but now it commenced a series of vast usurpations of which the best defense is that they excited no opposition among the community. Every mat ter of general importance—war, peace, alliances, the founding of colonies, the assigna tion of lands, building, the whole system of finance—came under its supervision and authority. Nor, on the whole, did it prove itself the unworthy arbiter of a nation's destinies. It was not a self-elected oligarchy, but was rather composed of the ablest rep resentatives of both orders.