A new epoch in Russian literature commenced with Alexander I., who was enthusas tic in the cause of education and progress. The number of universities was raised to seven; learned societies were also increased. The great ornament of literature at this period was Karamsin (q.v.), who freed it from the trammels of the pseudo-classicism, within which it had been confined by Lomonossov. IIis labors were continued by Dm7tricv and Batjushkov, while Shishkov combated with success the tendency to deprive the language of its Slavic character; and in the poetry of Shakovski, the .national ele ments again reasserted themselves. Along with these may be mentioned the historian 13olchovitiliov (1767-1837) and the theologian Drosdov, archbishop of Moscow; the poets Koslov, prince Alexander, Schachovskr(d. 1846), one of the best comic authors of Russia, and possessed of amazing fertility; Gribojedov, Glinka, prince Vjasemski (b. 1792), a celebrated song-writer, elegist, and critic; Davidov, and Gnieditsh. Mersljakov, who died a professor in Moscow, was a very able critic; while Chemnicer (1741 81) and Kry boy (1768-1844) rank first among the original fabulists of Russia. Bulgarin and Gretsh belong rather to the most recent period of Russian literature—a period characterized by the predominence of Russian influences, and the complete absorption into the one national spirit of all minor and foreign elements. The late czar Nicholas labored with his wonted passionate energy in this direction. Among the poets of this thoroughly Russian period, the most and brilliant is Pushkin (q.v.), whose verses are a mirror of Russian life, in which we see shadowed forth the joys and griefs, the humor and Abe patriotism, of the true Russian peasant. The most remarkable of Pushkin's contemporaries and successors are the poets Baratynski (d. 1844), baron Delvig, Benediktov, Podolinski, and Lermontov; the dramatists Nikolaus Polevoi and Nestor Kukolnik, who drew the matter of their dramas from the national history; and Gogol (q.v.), one of the most illustrious names in Russian literature. Russian novels exhibit a condition of society in which barbarism struggles for supremacy with a superficial civilization. The best writers in this department are Bestushev, Bulgarin, Sagoskin, whose most popular work, Jury or the Russians in, 1612, is modeled after the historical manner of sir Walter Scott; Vasili Ushakov, author of etc.; Count Sololmb, whose novels give
a graphic picture of St. Petersburg society; prince Odojevski, baron Theodor. Korff, , Konst. Masalski, and Senkovski, reckoned one of the first journalists in Russia; nor must the name of Alexander Ilerzen (q.v.), the "liberal Russian" exile, be omitted. The delineations of Cossack life are too numerous for special notice, but they constitute quite a distinct section of the literature of Russian fiction, and are composed for the most part in the dialect of Little Russia. Great attention has also been paid in Russia, as in all Slavic Countries, to popular songs and proverbs. The principal collections of these are by Novi kov, Kashin, Maximovitch, Makarov, and Sacharov.. The latest developments of Russian literature have been chiefly in the department of history, and among the most distin guished names are those of prof. Ustrialov of St. Petersburg, prof. Pogodin of Mos cow, Polevoi, Vasil' Berg (d. 1834), lieut.gen. Michailovski Danilevski, prof. Snjegirev, Sreznevski, Slovzov, Samailov, Solovjev, Strovjev, Neverov, and Arszenjev. Such phi losophy as exists in Russia is mainly an echo of the modern German schools, and therefore possesses no particular originality. Advances in theology are hardly to be looked for as yet from a church so deeply sunk in ignorance and intellectual stupor as the Russian, yet nowhere is reform more urgently required. As writers on jurisprudence, Nevolin,. Moroshkin, Spassoivitsch, deserve mention; amongst mathematicians, tdratenov, Perevos chtsehikov, Wesselovski; amongst physicists, Turtschaninov, Met selmikov, Sokolov, Kutorga, Kokscharov; and as linguists. Vostokov, Biliarski, See Borg, Poetic lVorks (f the Russians (Ger. 2 vols. Riga, 1823); Gretsch, Extra:,43 from the gets and Prose-writers of Russia (St. Petersb. 1821); Gretsch's History of Rude an Literature (Peterb., 1822); Jevgenij, History of Russian Literature (Petersb. K8nig, Literary Pictures from Russia (Stung. 1837); Otto, of Literature (Lps. 1837; translated into English by Cox, Oxford, 1839); Jordan, Histoky of Russian Literature, (Lps. 1846); and Valvi (Mrs. Robinson), "Vane cj the Languages and Literature of the Slavic Nations (New York, 1850).