Of the universities of Germany, the oldest are Prague, founded in 1348, and Vienna, in 1305. Heidelberg dates from 1386; Leipsic. 1409; Tfihingen, 1477; Jena, 1558; Halle, 1094; Gottingen, 1737; Berlin, 1810; and Bonn, 1818. The chief administrative body of the German universities is the seuatus academicus, composed of the ordinary profes sons, presided over by a rector elected yearly, or (at Halle and Tabingen) by a chancel lor appointed for life, the exercise of discipline being, however, intrusted to a separate court, presided over by a judicial officer called the syndic. There is a recognized grada tion in the professorial office. The highest class are ordinary professors, generally men of considerable eminence in their respective departments, elected by government out of three candidates submitted by the faculty to which they belong. text to them are the extraordinary professors of the same branches, with smaller salaries: and then the class of privet-docents, who, in the course of time, qualify themselves to be extraordinary pro fessors. An ordinary professor must deliver public 'centres on the branch to which he is appointed; an extraordinary professor, or privat-docent, may lecture on what subject he pleases. The student is for the most part at liberty to attend what lectures lie pleases; but licenses to practice certain professions, benefices in the church, and other posts, are only given to persons who have gone through a certain course of university study. In addition to the above-mentioned classes of instruction, there are attached to the uni versity teachers of modern languages and other branches not forming part of the cur riculum. The bungee, foundations resembling in their origin the English colleges, and the convat, or free table, are institutions for the benefit of the poorer students, from the former of which is derived the name bursche, popularly applied to a student in Germany. The Cerman university system is admirably adapted to promote the advancement of science; its deficiency is chiefly in appliances for superintending the progress of the indi vidual student. The professor is often more an instructor of the world at large by his writings, than of his students by his lectures.
The two great English universities are little inferior in antiquity to Paris and Bologna. From the beginning of the 12th to the middle of the 14th c.. Oxford played nearly as important a part in the advancement of science and political life as Paris itself, with which it was connected by intimetelies, the most eminent doctors of Oxford acting at the same time as regent-masters in 'Paris. It espoused the cause of the barons against the crown, and while preserving an intimate relation with the church, generally sided against ecclesiastical abuses. Oxford and Cambridge, not unlike the continental universities in their origin, developed themselves in a manner peculiar to England. From an early period it was the practice of the students to live in common in halls or hostels, rented from the burghers, under the charge of a common teacher. in 1280 there were no fever than 34 halls at Cambridge, some containing as many as 20 to 40 masters of arts, and a proportionate number of younger students. In the course of time, colleges were en
dowed by benevolent persons for the maintenance of the poorer students, and the name socii, or fellows, was applied to the recipients of the endowments. This assistance was originally meant to last no longer than the completion of the course of study; but as most of the soca belonged to the ecclesiastical order, and had no other means of support, an understanding gradually arose that the aid furnished by the college should be con tinued to the seeing till he succeeded in obtaining a benefice. These provisions grad ually increased in number and importance; and a practice was introduced of the col leges receiving wealthier students as boarders—the origin of the class of commoners or students not on the foundation. _Most of the halls fell into decay, and those that re mained received a collegiate character. In the 15th c., fellowships were no longer endowed to assist students going through their course of study, but as a permanent provision for poor young men of the clerical order who showed a taste for learned pur suits, and the degree of master was made a necessary condition for holding them. In this way the colleges became the university; the university acquired a semi-monastic character, which inns since more or less adhered to it; and a tutorial system of education within the colleges was almost entirely substituted for instructions by university profes sors. For two centuries, the staff of professors have had little to do with academical education or discipline. The instruction of the student is committed to college tutors, assisted by private tutors, and attendance on the professors is in general neither required for university rank nor for college emoluments. The tutorial system is defended on the ground of its giving the instructor a greater hold over the student's attention. On the other hand, it lacks the advantages arising out of the division of labor in the professorial system; and it is now generally allowed Clint a mixture of both systems of teaching is better than either alone. An effort has been made by the new statutes to render the professorial office in Oxford and Cambridge rather less of a sinecure than formerly. One of the most remarkable features of the English universities is their wealth in endow ments. to the Universities Commission Rsport (1874). the annual revenue of Oxford and Cambridge amounts to about £750,000, of which endowments provide -1'.614.000. For the mode of government, see CANIBRIDGE; OXFORD.
Of the two modern English universities, London university (q.v.) was established by royal charter in 1836. Durham university was opened for students in 1833. and ob tained the right of conferring degrees by royal charter in 1837. The general provisions for education are similar to those of Oxford and Cambridge, and there is also a course of theological study. In 1837, a course of instruction was added in mining and civil engineering. The university of Dublin (q.v.). founded in 1591, consists of a single col lege, named Trinity, with a constitution similar to the colleges of Oxford and bridge; but the professorial element is to a huge extent united with the tutorial.