New troubles sprang up with the reformation. Zwingli began to preach in the begin ning of the century, and Zurich, in 1523, adopted his opinions, and was followed by Bern and other cantons of the north. The forest cantons remained attached to the church of Rome. War broke out in 1531 between the Catholics and Protestants, and the former were successful at Cappel, where Zwingli was slain. This victory to some extent settled the boundaries of the two creeds in eastern Switzerland. In 1536, how ever, Bern wrested the Pays de Vaud from the dukes of Savoy and annexed it to their own territory. In the same year Calvin settled at Geneva, and the reformed doctrines spread throughout western Switzerland. During the thirty years' war Bern, which had become, since the conquest of Vaud, the leading canton, and Ziirich, contrived to main tain with great skill the neutrality of Switzerland; and in the treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, it was acknowledged by the great powers as a separate and independent state. At this period the Swiss, in immense numbers. were employed as soldiers in foreign service, and the record of their exploits gives ample evidence of their courage and hardihood. Internally there was great stagnation. The constitution of the larger cantons became more aristocratic, that is to say, the mass of the people lost their power over the govern ingbodies. In Zurich, Schaffhausen, and Basel the governing councils were elected by the corporations; and in Bern, Freiburg, Soleure, and Lucerne, a few families had acquired permanent rule. At the end of last century there was widespread discontent with this state of matters; but the French revolution broke out, and wars followed, which left no time for its manifestation. In 1798 Switzerland was seized by the French. At the peace of 1815 its independence was again acknowledged. The new confedera tion was divided into 22 cantons, each of which was represented in a diet, which was appointed to hold its annual meetings alternately at Bern, Zurich, and Lucerne. The old abuses which had crept into the constitutions of the cantons were revived, and repre sentation iu most of them became based on property qualifications. Officials, the aris tocracy, and the clergy joined to oppose innovations, and succeeded in doing so until 1830, when the French revolution broke out. Armed demonstrations were made against the towns, and universal suffrage was generally conceded. Basel town, however, held out; but the difficulty was settled by the separation of the town and country districts— the former remaining conservative, the latter becoming democratic. Geneva and Neuf chatel retained their old constitutions. The result of the changes was, however, that two-thirds of the whole population were allowed to take part in public affairs. The con sequences were not what had been expected by the liberals, who found that they had not yet the means of stengthening the central power. In 1839 at Zilrich, where Dr.
Strauss had been appointed a professor of theology, a mob of peasants, headed by the Protestant clergy, overturned the government. In Aargau a struggle took place between the liberals and the Ultriimontane party, which \vv.> settled, after long discussion, by an unsatisfactory compromise. In Valais, where universal suffrage had put power into the hands of the reactionary party, a war took place, in which the latter were victorious. They then ruled with a strong hand, and actually forbade the celebration of Protestant worship within the canton. In Lucerne, the headquarters of the Jesuits, the Ultramon tane party acted even more extravagantly; they so persecuted their political opponents that the latter were compelled to leave the canton. These measures caused the greatest discontent. In 1844 a proposal was made in the diet to expel the Jesuits; but that body declined to act. The radical party then determined to resort to force; they organized bodies of armed men, called the free corps, which invaded the Catholic cantons, but they were defeated. Changes favorable to them took place in some of the cantons. The Catholic cantons then formed a league, named the Sonderbund, for defense against the free corps. There was a general clamor for its suppression, but in the diet only 107r Nantes were in favor of that measure. The ruling party- in Geneva had been with the majority, and this conduct led to a revolution in that city. One vote was thus gained against the Sonderbund. St. Gall added another; and a majority in the diet in 1847 declared the illegality of the Sonderbund, and decreed the expulsion of the Jesuits. In the war which ensued between the federal army and the forces of the Sonderbund, the former were victorious at Freiburg and Lucerne. The leagued cantons were made liable in all the expenses of the war, the Jesuits were expelled, and the monasteries were suppressed. An attempt was made by diplomatic notes to intimidate the Swiss govern ment, but the revolution of 1848 broke out and prevented further interference. In the same year the radical party, convinced of the necessity of a more powerful central gov ernment, carried the constitution of 1848, of which we have already taken notice. Since then the most important event which has taken place in Switzerland was a rebellion against the king of Prussia as prince of Neufchatel. The canton was declared a republic, with a constitution similar to that of the other Swiss states. The king of Prussia pro tested, but in vain, against the change, and at length lie withdrew all opposition, and remained satisfied with the bare title of prince of Neufchatel, which he still retains.