Administration, Religion, Education.—The government of Turkey has always been a pure depotism; the constitution granted in 1876 and revoked in 1878 was only nominal. The power of the sultan (also called padishah, grand seignior, khan, and hunkiar) is much limited by the skeilek-ta-islam, the chief of the U tones (q.v.), who has the power of objecting to any of the sultan's decrees, and frequently possesses more authority over the people than his sovereign. The supreme head of the administration, and the next in rank to the sultan, is the grand vizier (sadri-azam), under whom are the members of the cabinet or divan (menasybi-divaniie), namely, the presidents of the supreme council of state (alkiami-adlie) and of the tanzimat (q.v.), the seraskier (q.v.), the capn den pasha, or high admiral, and the other heads of departments of the administra tion. The governors of the eyelets, or provinces, are styled walls; each eyelet is divided into sardaks, or lives, ruled by kaimakams; each diva containing a number of or districts; and each caza a number of nahiyehs, composed of villages and ham lets. The provincial governors have no longer the power of life and death; and the introduction of the system of tax collection in practice in western Europe, has greatly diminished their power of practicing extortion on those udder their rule. The variable imposts are, however, farmed, but considerable restrictions are imposed on the farmers to prevent oppression. The established religion is Mohammedanism, but all other sects are recognized and tolerated; and since 1856, a MasseIman has been free to change his religion at pleasure, without becoming liable to capital punishment, as was formerly the case. Education was long neglected, but in 1847 a new system was introduced; and since then, schools for elementary instruction have been established throughout Turkey; and middle schools for higher education, and colleges for the teaching of medicine, agri culture, naval and military science, etc. Many wealthy Turks, however, send their sons to France or Britain to be educated. The newspapers published in Turkey are not all printed in Turkish: several of them are printed in Greek, French, and other lan guages.
Revenue and Turkish government has never published an account of the actual revenue and expenditure of the empire. Estimates were given: but the budgets were so constructed us either to show a surplus, or to make the income and disbursements balance one another, while it was notorious that there were heavy deficits year by year. Years before the war 1877, the Turkish exchequer was evidently on the brink of insol vency, as was manifested by the violent expedients proposed for escaping from part of its liabilities. In 1875 a decree reduced the interest payable on the debt to one-half the
proper amount; and another decree in 1876 announced that no further payments would be made till the internal affairs of the empire should allow of it. The enormous expen diture of the war, and the loss ofvaluable provinces, have only added to the utter dis organization of Turkish finances.
The first budget that admitted a deficit was that of 1874-75, where the revenue was given at £22,552,300, and the expenditure at £22,849,610. In 1875-76 the revenue was estimated at £19,106,352, and the expenditure at £23,143,276. In 1878-79, it has been (unofficially) calculated that the revenue cannot exceed £14,000,000, while, with a propor tion of the war expenses to clear off, the outlay must amount to some £50,000,000.
Between 1854 and 1874, when the borrowing power of Turkey came to an end; four teen several loans had been contracted to meet deficiencies. At the end of that period, the foreign debt of Turkey amounted to £184,981,783. The internal and floating debt of the empire is difficult to ascertain; it has been stated in 1878 at £75,000,000. Mean while further to stave off the evil day, the government has issued vast quantities of mimes or paper money, probably to the nominal value of £90,000,000.
il'avy and navy of Turkey consisted at the end of 1878 of 15 large armor-clad vessels, 18 smaller iron-clads (including 11 monitors and Danube gun-boats). and 45 other steamers. The two largest iron-clads have a tonnage of 9,140 tons, and armor 12 in. in thickness at the water-line.
The army is composed of the active or regular army (nizam), of the reserve (reduf ). and of irregular troops; the nizam contains 44 regiments of infantry; 27 regiments of cavalry; 7 regiments of field-artillery; and a brigade of engineers. The irregular troops comprise 16 regiments of gendarmes, the now notorious Basbi-Bazouks (volunteer infantry receiving from the government only arms and ammunition), and volunteer cav alry. The law of 180 contemplated an active army of 220,000 men, with 80,000 in the first reserve, 420,000 men in the second reserve, and the Made or landsturm. Military . service of 20 years (of which 4 are spent in the active army) is obligatory on all Mos lems. The auxiliaries are 75,000, and the irregular troops 87,000.
The history of Turkey is given under OTTOMAN EMPIRE.