VEDANTA (from the Sanskrit cede and ante, end; hence, literally, "the end or ulti mate aim of the Vedas") is the second great division of the illinninsa (q.v.) school of Hindu philosophy. It is chiefly conceived in the investigation of Brahman (neuter), or the Supreme Spirit, and the relation in which the universe, and especially the human soul, stands to it; and in contradistinction from the Pitreantimansa, or the (inirndnsd) of the former (pfirr,a) part of the Vedas—viz., the &Ada and especially the fireihnian'es (see VEDA)-WhiCil contain the (Mama, or religious law (see MIK Ixs.1), it is also called Uttara-mineinsii, or the investigation (mininsii) of the latter (lettara) part of the Vedas—viz., Aran'yakes anti Upanishads (q,.v.), which treat of (the neuter) Brahman, or the Supreme Spirit [not to be confounded with (the mas culine) Brahman, or the god of the mythological Trimkrti (q.v.)]. Sometimes the name given to it is S'ariWyt-minninsii, or the investigation of the soul (s'ariaka). In its method, the Vedanta differs from the Nyaya (see Treat and VAIS'ESIIIKA) by endeavoring to explain the universe as a successive development from one ultimate source or principle—whereas the Nyaya, in both its divisions, treats of the objects of human knowledge of which -the universe is composed, under different topics, unconcerned about their mutual relation of effect and cause; and from the Sinaya (see SINRIITA and YOGA), it is distinct, inasmuch as that system is based on the assump tion of a duality of principles whence the universe derives its origin.
The object-matter of the Vedanta is the proof that the universe emanates in a successive development from a Supreme Spirit or soul, which is called Braman, or paraniatmun; that the human soul is therefore identical in origin with Brahman; that the worldly existence of the human soul is merely the result of its ignorance of this sameness between itself and the Supreme Spirit; and that its final liberation or free dom from transmigration (q.v.) is attained by a removal of this ignorance, that is, by a proper understanding of the truth of the Vedanta doctrine. .
According to this doctrine, Brahman (neuter) is both the efficient and material cause of the world, creator and creation, doer It is one, self-existent, supreme, as truth, wisdom, intelligence, and happiness; devoid of the three qualities, in the sense in which Created beings possess them; and at the consummation of all things, the whole universe is resolved or absorbed into it. From Brahman individual souls emanate, as innumerable sparks issue from a blazing fire. The soul, therefore, is neither born, nor does it die; it is of divine substance, and as such, infinite, immortal, intelligent, sentient, true. Its separate existence, as distinct from Brahman, is the cause of its ignorance; and this ignorance, which consists in regarding the world as a reality capable of subsist ing without Brahman, has a double power—that of enveloping and projecting. By means of the former it makes the soul liable to mundane vicissitudes, as to the sensations of pleasure, pain, etc. The projective power of ignorance, when encompassing the soul in its fourth condition, or that of pure intellect (its other conditions are: waking, dream ing, and dreamless sleep) produces out of the darkness which then prevails the five sub tile elements—viz., ether, which is the substratum of the quality sound; air, which arises from ether, the substratum of touch; from air, fire or light, the substratum of color; from light, touter, the substratum of savor; and from water, earth, the substratum of smell. From these subtile elements are then produced 17 subtile bodies and the five gross elements. The former, also called lingas'arira, because they are bodies (s'arira) which impart to existing beings their individual character (tinge), are the five organs of perception—viz., the organs of hearing, touch, sight, taste, and smell, which arise sev erally from the pure or inactive particles of each of the subtile elements; further, two intellectual organs, which are produced from the mingled pure, or inactive particles of the subtile elements—viz., buddhi, understanding, the function of which is to arrive at a certainty or conclusion, and manes (an organ of volition and imagination), the function of which consists in willing and doubting—thinking and referring the external objects to one's own self, being two functions common to both of them; lastly, the fire organs of action—viz., the voice. the hands, the feet, the organ of excretion and that of generation, which are severallyproduced from the foul or active particles of each of the subtile elements; and the five vital airs, which are produced from the mingled foul or active particles of the subtile elements—viz., the air breathed forth, which has its place in the fore-part of the nose; the air breathed downward, which has its place in the lower intestines; the air which circulates through the whole body; the ascending air, which has its place in the throat, and the descending air in the middle of the body, which causes assimilation and digestion of food, produces semen, excrements, etc. (Later Vedantists assume ten such vital airs— viz., besides the foregoing, the airs which severally cause retelling, winking, hunger, yawning, and fattening.) The five gross elements are the five subtile elements, when, according to a theory derived from a scriptural text, they have become so divided and combined that each of them retains a preponderating portion of itself, and consequently ,of the quality of which it is the substratum—as ether of sound, etc.—and besides smaller
portions of the other subtile elements, and the qualities of which they are the substrata. From these gross elements then arise the various (mythological) worlds, and this world, too, with bodies which are distinguished as viviparous, or those produced from a womb, as men, beasts, etc.; oviparous, or those produced from an egg, as birds, snakes, etc.; those generated by "sweat" or hot moisture, as lice, gnats, etc.; and those germinating, as creepers, trees, etc. The soul, when existing in the body, is encased in a succession of "sheaths." The first or interior "sheath" consists of buddlei, associated with the organs of perception; the second, of mantis, associated with the organs of action; and the third, of the vital airs together with the organs of action. These three "sheaths" constitute the subtile body of the soul, which attends the soul in its transmigrations:, and the collective totality of such subtile bodies is the supreme soul, as regarded in its relation to the world; when it, is also called " the soul which is the thread," or passes like the thread through the universe, or hiran'yagarblia, or life. The fourth and exte rior "sheath" of the soul is composed of the gross elements; and the collective aggre gate of such gross bodies is the gross body of the deity. This whole development being the result of ignorance, the soul frees itself from its error by understanding that the different stages in which this development appears, do not represent real or absolute truth; and when its error has completely vanished it ceases to be re-born, and becomes reunited with Brahman, whence it emanated. But since the means of arriving at a final deliverance can only be the complete mastery of the truths of the Vedanta, other means, such as the performance of sacrifices or other religious acts enjoined by the Vedas (q.v.), or the practice of Yoga (q.v.), cannot lead to the same result. They may he meritorious, and are even recommended as such, but can, effect only an apparent liberation. Of this there are two kinds: one liberation which is effected hi lifetime, and enables a man.to perform supernatural actions or wonders, as the evocation of the shades of progenitors, going anywhere at will, and similar feats; and another winch takes place after death, and enables the soul, not divested of its subtile body, to reside in heaven; but after a time its effect ceases, and the soul has to renew its mundane existence. In order to fit the mind for meditating on these truths, various moral duties are enjoined, and various practices are recommended, especially by later Vedanta writers. Thus, the student of the Vedanta is told not to hurt a sentient being, to speak the truth, not to steal, to practice continence, and not to accept gifts; to remain pure and content, to do penance, and to study the Vedas; also to remain in certain postures, to practice various modes of suppressing his breath, and the like. These injunctions, however, are extra neous to the doctrine itself, and appear to be a compromise with the old orthodox faith, which requires time peformance of religious acts, and a later stage of it, which favors such austere practices as are especially known by the name of Yoga (q.v.), Thu doc trine of bha•ti, or faith, does not belong to the older Vedanta; it is, however, an inter esting feature of the later periods of this philosophy; and the same observation applies to the doctrine of Maya, or illusion, according to which the world has uo reality what ever, but is merely the product of imagination; for the older Vedanta, as will have becu seen, merely teaches that the world is not the truth, but does not deny its material reality.
The oldest work on this philosophy is attributed to Beidariiyan a, or Tryeisa (q.v.), and is written in the Stitra (q.v.) style; it is called the Brahma-Sidra; it consists of four adhyfigas, or lectures, each subdivided into four ?Ades, or chapters; each pada contain ing a number of Sutras. The number of the latter is 558, and that of the adhikaran'as or topics treated in them, 191. The most important commentary on this work is the Sdrlrakaminldnsd-bhdshya, by Sankareichdrya (q.v.); and this commentary, again, has been commented on by a great variety of writers. The text of the Sutras and this com mentary have been edited at Cale., 1818; and the text with this commentary, and a gloss on the latter, by Govindananda, in the Bibliotheca Indices, by Pandita Rama icara yan'a Vidyaratua, Calc., 1863. Of tile great number of other commentaries on the Brahma-Slatras, mention may be made only of that by Bdruinuja (q.v., under VAisr& AvAs), and of a short but very lucid one, by An iipanarayan'as'iramanf Wade a (edited at Cale., without date). Among elementary treatises on the Vedanta, the most popular is the Vedantascira, by Sada nanda, which, with the commentary of Rdinalor'ishni a Tirtha, has been edited at Cale., 1829, and with this and another commentary by Xi.' isinhasar asumti, at Cale., 1849. It has been edited and translated also by the late Dr. J. E. Bal lantyne (A Lecture on the Vedanta, embracing the Text of the Vedanta Seira, Allahabad, 1850), who also translated the beginning of the Brahma-Sfitras.—A very useful compen dium of the Adhikaran'as, or topics, is the Adhikaran'amala, by Ilharatitirtha, which, with the Anandachandra- Veda ntacagis'a, has been edited, Cale., 1862, and as an appendix to the Brahma-Sfltras, with extracts from this commentary, in the Bi5liotheca Indica, 1863.