SAPPERS, GUSTAVE; 1803-74; b. Antwerp; studied art in Flanders and at Paris, and became a historical painter of the romantic style. By Leopold I. lie was made a. baron and director of the Antwerp academy. In 1855 he removed to Paris, where the rest of his life was spent. His best works are, "Christ at the Sepulcher," "Charles IX. on the Night of St. Bartholomew," "Execution of Anne Boleyn," and "The Great. Fishery of Antwerp." WAR between states or nations, or is parties in the same state (civil war), i analagous to club-law (Ger. faustrecht), or the law of the strongest, among the individ uals of a community, which is the normal state of things where no legal or fixed rights are established, or where there is no authority to enforce them. The prevalence of war among nations is thus an indication of the imperfection, or the total want, of inter national law. If the sentiment of brotherhood were universally diffused, and a system of international morality established and generally accepted, together with an organiza tion for putting it in force, we can conceive the necessity for war to cease. And although the full realization of this state of things may never be attained, it is neverthe less the ideal goal to which all real progress tends. But it by no means follows that in the present condition of the world, while the sentiment of international justice is yet in embryo, peace at any price is to be preferred to war. When a community is in a state of anarchy, the individual man must take the law into his own hands, and defend his life and his rights with violence if need be; and nations in similar circumstances must do. the same. The balance of power (q.v.), the shape in which the sentiment of political morality in Europe seemed at one time trying to crystallize itself, has gone again appar ently into chaos.
Wars are various in their occasions and objects, sometimes breaking out in conse quence of disputes about territorial possessions or material interests; at other times, hav ing reference to the establishment of some important point of civil or religious liberty. In all cases, the aim of each contending party is to weaken and overthrow the opposing party. At one time the art of war was supposed to consist very much in wearing out the enemy by a slow process of exhaustion, and thus wars were much protracted; but more recently the greatest generals have adopted the method of rather endeavoring to strike sudden and terrible blows, by which the war is sooner brought to a termination; and this method, 'although it may often have been adopted without regard to considera tions of humanity, is, in all probability, less productive of suffering to mankind than the other.- • Among rude nations, wars are conducted by tumultuary hosts, suddenly congre gated, and iu general, either after defeat or victory, soon dispersed. But the wars of the more civilized and powerful nations have long been conducted by armies carefully trained and disciplined; and in the case of maritime powers, by means of fleets at sea as well as of armies on land. Preparation for war among such nations requires not only
the forming and training of the army, but vast provision in many various ways of the means and materiel of war. Much science and skill are also applied to the conduct of military operations, and the principles upon which they ought to be conducted have been carefully investigated, and theories tested by an examination of the history of the most important campaigns. See STRATEGY, TACTICS.
In the progress of society, certain usages of war have come to be generally recognized. These, of course, have varied at different times, and in different parts of the world, according to the state of civilization and the prevalent feelings of the time; they are also subject to modification from causes less general. But the changes which have taken place in them during the lapse of ages have been in general favorable to the interests of humanity. Prisoners of war are no longer put to death, nor are they reduced to slavery, as was once very frequently the case, but their treatment has become generally more and more mild and kind. It is a well-understood rule, however, that a prisoner of war obtaining his liberty by exchange or otherwise, with the condition of not serving again during a fixed period against the same power, forfeits his life if he is found so serving and is again taken prisoner. Amongst all civilized nations, quarter is granted in battle whenever it is sought; and there are certain usages universally prevalent with regard to the capitulation of fortified places, and of bodies of troops hopelessly hemmed in by superior forces, etc.
1Var-cries for mutual recognition and encouragement in battle have always been com mon, each rude nation or tribe having its own. The ancient war-cry of the English was Saint George ! that of the Spaniards, San Jago ! and that of the French, Saint Denis! In the feuds of the middle ages, each party, or the retainers of each noble fam ily, had a distinctive war-cry. Sometimes the war-cry was the name of the family. Thus, in Scotland, the retainers of the noble houses of Douglas and of Home rushed into battle with the cry of A Douglas! a Douglas ! or A Home! a home! The French armies under Napoleon were accustomed to charge with shouts of Vise l'Empereur ! The invention of gunpowder has effected great changes in the whole art of war; but the introduction of firearms has rendered battles less sanguinary and ferocious than they previously were. While fire-arms were yet unknown, warlike engines of various kinds were employed; but close combat was more general, and often more protracted, and the passions of the combatants had thus in ordinary battle more of that exasperation widen fearfully characterizes the storming of a town. See INTERNATIONAL LAW.