The Belgian school-system suffered for more than ten years under the freedom of teaching allowed by the constitution, which was chiefly made use of by the wealthy Catholic clergy. The consequence was that education assumed a divided and sectarian character. Since the state, however, has exercised a general superintendence over the universities, gymnasia, and elementary schools, a higher style of education has pre vailed. The two universities of Ghent and Liege, united with a school of architecture and mining; ten national schools (.4thenic.$), in which a classical is combined with a commercial education; upwards of 50 schools preparatory to these (ecolew moyenne,4); two seminaries for teachers at Lierre and Nivelle, besides the superintendence now exercised by the state over the institutions formerly maintained by communes and provincial cor porations, and, above all, over the primary schools—all this forms a sufficient counter poise to the numerous schools supported by private individuals and religious bodies. Among the latter may.be noticed the Catholic university of Louvain, founded in 1836, and conducted under .strict ecclesiastical discipline; the free university of Brussels; and the gymnasia of the Jesuits at Namur, Brugelette, Brussels, and Liege. Journalism in B. has been greatly, xtended by the abolition of the stamp•duty (1848), and 180 daily newspapers are now published, including 56 Flemish papers; but only a few have obt:uned a proper degree,of respectability and influence.
Population and Iteligion.—The pop. of B. is of mixed German and Celtic origin. The Flemings (a branch of the 'Teutonic family) and Walloons (a branch of the Celtic family), .distinguished try their ;peculiar dialects, are still conspicuous among the pure Germans, Dutch, and French. 'Ile French language has gained the ascendency in edu cated society, and in Ike Atiice$,of government; but the Flemish dialect prevails nu riled ca]ly in the proportion of 4 to 3. The Catholic religion is the prevailing form. There are only about 14,000 or 15,000 Protestants, and 3000 Jews. The supreme Catholic dig nitaries of B. are the archbishop of Mechlin, and the five diocesan bishops of Bruges, Ghent, Tourney, Namur, and Liege.
The government of B. is a limited constitutional monarchy, and was established in its present form by the revolution of 1830. The legislative body consists of two chambers —that of the senate, and that of the representatives. A responsible ministry, with the king as president, is at the head of all public affairs, and its measures are carried into effect by the governors of the several provinces. The ministry includes departments for home affairs, foreign affairs, finance, justice, public works, and war. The administra tion of justice retains the forms of French jurisprudence. In 1878, the estimated reve nue of B. was £10,413,350; and the estimated expenditure, £10,384,230. The national debt amounted in 1878 to 1,521,947,444 francs, or £60,877,897.
The standing army of B. is formed by conscription, to which every healthy man who has passed his nineteenth year is liable. Substitution is allowed. The legal period of service is eight years, but about five years are allowed on furlough. According to a law passed in 1868, the strength of the, army is to be 100,000 men on the war footing, and 40,000 in times of peace. The importance of B. in a military point of view affords a reason for the maintenance of fortifications at Antwerp, Ostend, Nieuport, Ypres, Tournay, Mons, and other places.
History of Belgium, to 1830.—In the time of the Romans, the name Gallia 73elgiert was given to the southern Netherlands lying on the confines of Gaul and Germany. It was peopled by Celtic and German tribes. The latter were predominant in Batavia and Friesland, and under the rule of the Franks in the 5th and 6th c., gained the also in the southern districts. Until the close of the 11th c., the feudal system, which
arose at the fall of the Carlovingian dynasty, prevailed in the Netherlands, where the several southern provinces were made duchies and comities. The co. of Flanders, superior to all the others in industry and commerce, maintained, during a long struggle, its independence against France; and, in 1383, when the male line of the counts of Flanders expired, was annexed to the powerful house of Burgundy, which, in the begin ning of the 15th c., also gained possession of all the other provinces of the Netherlands. The rulers of Burgundy aimed at founding a powerful united state between France and Germany, and therefore endeavored to repress the free republican spirit which mani fested itself in the rapidly rising towns. The work of establishing unlimited sovereignty was interrupted by the fall of Charles the bold, and the partial division of his territo ries; but was continued by the emperor Charles V., the grandson of the emperor Maxi milian, and Maria, the heiress of Burgundy—through the latter of whom the Nether lands passed into the possession of the house of Hapsburg. After the abdication of Charles, these provinces passed into the hands of Philip II., and by the law of primo geniture, should have remained united with Spain. But scarcely had the peace of Chilteau-Cambresis (1559)put an end to the encroachments of France, when the religious disputes of the reformation, and the despotic measures of Philip, excited in the provinces a long and bloody war for civil and religious freedom, which ended in the independence of the northern or Teutonic Netherlands, while in the southern or more Celtic provinces (now included under B.), both the sovereignty of Spain and the rule of the Roman Catholic church continued. In 1598, B. was ceded by Philip II. to his daughter Isabella, wife of the archduke Albert, when it became a distinct and independent kingdom. Several measures for the better regulation of internal affairs, especially in the administration of justice, and for the revival of industry, which had been injured by the unenlightened policy of Philip, were projected. Unfortunately, Albert died childless in 1621, and B. fell back into the hands of Spain. and became involved in the wars attending the decline of the Spanish monarchy. Peace was concluded chiefly at the cost of Belgium. By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), the counties of Artois, Thionville, and other dis tricts, were given to Prance. Subsequent conquests by the same powerful neighbor secured to it, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), the possession of Lille, Charleroi, Oudenarde, Conrtray, and other places. These were partly restored to B. at the peace of Nimeguen; but as a compensation, Valenciennes, Nieuport. Cambray, St. Omer, Cliarleinont, and other places, were given up, and only partially regained by B. at the peace of Ryswick in 1697. After the conclusion of this treaty, at the close of the reign of Charles II. of Spain, sonic endeavors were made to create prosperity in B. by a new system of taxation and customs, and by the construction of canals, to counteract the injury done to its commerce by the closing of the of the Scheldt; but these projected improvements were interrupted by the Spanish war of succession, which was not concluded until the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. By this treaty, B. was given to Austria, Holland retaining the privilege of garrisoning the most important fortresses on the French frontier, and also of exercising a monopoly of the navigation of the Scheldt. The "Belgian commercial company" at Ostend, founded by Charles VI. in 1722, fell in 1731—another sacrifice to the cupidity of Holland. During the Austrian war of suc cession (1744), almost the whole country fell into the hands of the French; but was peaceably restored to Austria by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).