The application of the microscope in B. inaugurated a new epoch of the science, about the middle of the 17th century. Henshaw and Hook, both Englishmen, were among the first to employ this instrument to good purpose in the examination of the organs and structure of plants; but the greatest eminence belongs to the name of Grew, also an Englishman, a physician at Coventry, and to that of Malpighi, an Italian, per haps still more celebrated for his anatomical than for his botanical discoveries. Vege table physiology now began to be recognized as the highest department of botanical science.
In the latter half of the century, perhaps the most eminent name after Ray is that of Joseph Pittou de Tournefort, a French gentleman, who devoted his whole life to the pursuit of botanical science, and who must be particularly noticed in a sketch of the history of B., on account of a system which he proposed, and which was more generally received and employed than any other till the time of LiIMMIS. Another botanist of the same period, Rivinus, professor at Leipsic, gave to the world a botanical system which was received to some extent in Germany. Tournefort's system was partly natural and partly artificial; that of Rivinus was perhaps the most perfectly artificial that was ever proposed.
The science of B. made rapid progress during the 17th and 18th centuries, both by the extension of botanical research in different parts of the world, and the careful study of particular groups of families of plants. Its progress was promoted by the publi cation of many valuable descriptive works. Important discoveries were also made in vegetable physiology.
About the middle of the 18th c., the wonderful genius of Linnaeus effected a great change in B., as well as in zoology. His name marks an epoch in the history of the science; not chiefly, however, in consequence of the new system which he introduced, nor even because of the discoveries which he made, but rather because he was able very thoroughly to make himself master of all that had been ascertained by his predecessors, and to exhibit it in lucid order. He gave also a great impulse to botanical studies by the enthusiasm with which he inspired his pupils. And among the benefits which he conferred on B., in common with zoology, not the least considerable was the intro duction of trivial or specific names to be used along with the name of the genus as the designations of particular species.
From the time of Linnaeus, the progress of B. during the remaineder of the 18th c. became more rapid; and since the commencement of the 10th c., it has advanced with gigantic strides. A large space would be occupied by a mere enumeration of the names of those who have promoted it by their labors and discoveries. Some notion of what botanical literature has become, may be formed from the fact that Pritzel, in his Thesaurus Litteraturce Botaniece (Leip. 1847-51), emunerates about 15,000 publications.
Von Hailer, im anatomist and philosopher, as well as a botanist, was, of all the con temporaries of Linnaeus, the only one who could be regarded as his rival. Of all the of the latter half of the 18th c., the most deserving to be mentioned in the history of the sci;nce along with flip great Swede, are Bernard de Jussien, and his nephew, Antoine Laurent de Jassieu, who applied themselves with great earnestness to the study of the natural affinities of plants and the formation of n natural system, a work which Linnaeus himself attempted, and of the importance of which he was so sensible, that whilst acknowledging the imperfect success of his endeavors, he declared his resolution to persevere in them to the end of his life. Thu Jussieus traced the out lines of a system which the greatest botanists since their time have not so much sought to change as to complete. Among those who have labored with greatest success in this work, must be mentioned De Candolle, Fries, Endlicher, Brongniart, 31eisner, Von -Martins, Lindley, and Brown. The botanist last tanned by his work on the plants of New Bolland, published in 1810, a high eminence, not on account of new plants which he described, but on account of the light which he threw upon the most difficult questions connected with the structure of plants and vegetable v _)!any remarkable discoveries in vegetable physiology have recently been made by Link, )[even, Schleideu, Von Moil, Lindley, and others, some of them affecting what may be called the most fundamental principles of botanical science, Since the days of Linnmus, great progress has been made in the examination of the 13. of particular countries and districts, of which perhaps the least important result been the discovery of very many plants unknown before. But our limits prevent us from noticing particular works in this department of botanical science, or those of botanical travelers, or of botanists who have devoted thetnselves to the study of par ticular groups of plants. And we can merely allude to the scientific associations, con tinually increasing in number and resources. by which the interests of this scieuce are promoted, and to the magazines and other periodical publications devoted to it. Dow ever, we cannot but refer also to what may be deemed by some--but unjustl•—matters of comparative insignificance, the introduction of B. into schools, and the publication of many works intended for the use of persons not very scientific. By the introduc tion of this or any similar bran•h of science into schools, not only may important educational purposes be served, but the may be led to form a taste for the science which will impel them to its subsequent prosecution. There are few branches of science so easily made popular as B.; but they very much mistake its nathre who sup
pose it to consist in a mere knowledge of the names of plants, or in a familiarity with the classes of an artificial system. What 13. really is, and to what the true study of it tends, is better perceived if we consider that "there is not a Bower that blows but has some-beauty only unveiled to the minute inquirer, some peculiarity in structure fitting it to its destined place and purpose, and yet not patent to a casual glance." There is perhaps no branch of science which demands more than B. the application of the highest mental powers; and like every other, to him who truly prosecutes it—whether little or much—it brings iu due measure an immediate reward in his own improvement and delight, W proceed to exhibit an outline of the Linmenn system, the only artificial system which it necessary further to notice, and of the natural system by which it has been to a great extent superseded. The Linnce•n system,-however. is not entirely artificial. lts foundation may be said to be laid in the perfectly natural distinction between Plianerogamous and Cryptopmous plants—the former of which Linn:tits divided into 23 classes; whits the eonstituted the latter. corresponding to the Aeotyled °nous plants of Jussieu, into his 24tli and last class, ('ryptnqamra. In the other classes, he took the characters from the parts of fructification: this he defined as having no stamens or pistils distinctly visible, and gave it a name, Cry ptogant in (Gr. krypnis, con cealed, and marri•e), in accordance with this definition, modestly refraining from a confident assertion of the absence of stamens and pistils. Of the 23 Masses of phaneroemmous or plienormmous plants (Gr. pha nern3, manifest, and phaina,to show). the characters of all are taken from the stamens; and those of Classes I. simply from the number of them; these classes, however, not including plants exhibiting time peculiarities with reference to which the remaining classes are constituted.1 hits Class I.. .1butandria (Gr. memos, one, aner, a male), consists of plants the flowers of which have only one stamen; Class II., Dia ad ria (Gr. die, twice), of those with two stamens; Class II1., ?Wand Mt (Gr. frets, three). of those with three stamens, and so on; Class IV.. Tetra nti ria (Gr. teham, four times); Class V., Pentand ria (Gr. , tire); Class VI.. Ile.ra ndria (Gr. her, six); Class VII., Ileptandria (Gr. /teen, seven); X., \ Oetandria (Gr. octo. eight); Class IX„ Enn ea wirier (Gr. omen, nine); Class N., Decanting, (Gr. eleka, Class XI., podecandria (Gr. (lode ker, twelve), the number of the stamens is less definitely fixed, and plants are included in it having more than ten, and fewer than twenty stamens. Then follow two classes—Class XII., Ien.landrrez (Gr. (Ikon, twenty). and Class XIII., Po/yandrht (Gr. pnlyR, many)—which have numerous stamens, but differ in their being inserted on the calyx in the former class, and on the receptacle in the latter, characters essentially natural. as are those also of most of the remaining classes. Classes XIV., Didynamirr, and XV., Tetrad ynam in (Gr. cl yn a mt.", power), are distinguished by havirg the stamens of different lengths—the formeer having two long and two short stamen., the latter, four long and two short. Class „XV. agrees with the great natural order crucifcres. Class XVI., Mona& I ph ia (Gr. adelphos, a brother) has the stamens united by the filaments in one bundle; Class XVII.. Diad elph ia, has the fila ments united in two bundles, or one free and the rest united; Class XVIII., Polgadelphia, has them united in more than two bundles. ' In Class XIX., Syngenesia (Cr. together, and genesis, generation), the stamens are also united, but by the anthers instead of the filaments. ,This class nearly agrees with the peat natural order Composila, and consists chiefly of plants having compound dowers. Class XX., Gynandria (Gr. gyne, a female), consists of plants in the stamens grow out of, Or are united with the pistil. Class XXI., Moneecia (Gr. oikos, a house), consists of plants having the stamens and pistils in different flowers on the same plant; Class XXII., Diavia, of those which have the male and female flowers on different plants; Class XXIII.. Polygamia (Gr. pays, many, gamos, marriage), of those having the stamens and pistils in the same or in different flowers on the same or on different plants.—The classes are divided into orders, which are constituted on various grounds. The orders of the first 13 classes are strictly artificial, their characters being found simply in the number of the pistils, according to which.they are named illonognia (Gr. monos, one, gyne, a female), Digynia, l'rigynia, etc.; Dodeeagynia, including all with 12 to 19 pistils, and Paligynia, all with 20 and upwards. The orders of Class XIV. are constituted on entirely different grounds, and are two in number, Gymnospernzia (Gr. gyinnos, naked. sperma, a seed), and Avgio spermia (Gr. angeion, a vessel)—the former "having naked seeds" (or rather the fruit formed of 4. aeltenia), the latter having the seeds in a capsule. The orders of Class XV. are in like manner founded upon the fruit; those of Classes XVI., XVII.. and XVIII. upon the number of the stamens; as are also those of Classes XX., XXI., and XXII.; those of Class XIX., chiefly upon characters taken from the florets of com pound flowers; those of Class XXIII., upon the circumstance of the hermnplirodite, male and female flowers being found on one, two, or three plants; whilst the orders of Class XXIV. are strictly (or ferns), _Mini (or mosses), Alga, and Fungi.