The water supply of C. has recently been very much improved. Formerly, the water was kept in large tanks, interspersed throughout the city, whence it was borne by water carriers or bakisties in large leather bags. But within the past five years, a supply of excellent water has been obtained from the Hoogly, about 15 m. above C., where it is filtered and sent down by pipes in the usual way. The result of this has been a marked improvement in the health of the city. Gas has now taken the place of the oil-lamps which were formerly in general use for lighting the streets at night. Tramways have been recently tried in some of the principal streets, but as yet with little success. A canal girds a part of the city beyond the circular road The communications of C. afford great facilities for its extensive commerce. There are several lines of railway to various parts of India; the East Indian to Benares, Delhi, and Multan, its present terminus, whence it is to be continued to Kurrachee; the Eastern Bengal, the extension of which to Gulundu was opened in 1871; and the Calcutta and South-eastern to the mouth of the Ganges. Time great Indian Peninsula railway branches off from the East Indian, and connects C. with Bombay and Madras. C. is also connected by electric telegraph with the principal towns of India, and can communicate with England by three different lines. Uninterrupted communi cation is kept up with Great Britain by numerous and well-appointed steamers and sail ing-vessels. This intercourse has been greatly facilitated by the opening of the Suez canal. Navigation on the Hoo„ghly is dangerous, owing to the shifting sands; and though much been attempted little has been effected in the way of remedying the evil. The river, adjacent to the city, varies in breadth from a quarter of a mile to nearly a mile. Ships of 2000 tons can ascend to Calcutta.
The growth of scientific and literary societies, here and elsewhere in India among time native communities, indicates a degree of progress and intellectual activity very hopeful for the future of India. The principal of these in C. are the Bengal Asiatic society, founded in 1784 by sir N'. Jones, possessing a fine library, and a valuable and extensive museum; the Bethune society. for the promotion of intercourse between Euro pean and native gentlemen; the Dalhousie institute, for the literary and social improve ment of all classes of the community; the Bengal social science association, and others.
The university of C. was founded in 1857, on the same basis as the London university, and exercises functions over Bengal. the North-west Provinces,. Onde, and the Central Provinces. Colleges have been instituted to prepare intending students. In 1877, of 2425 candidates for admission to the university of 0., 1355 passed the required exam inations. Other educational institutions are numerous in Calcutta. The principal places for religious instruction are Bishop's college, intended chiefly for the education of mission aries and teachers, and the institutions of the established and free churches of Scotland for the same purpose, all which are ably conducted.
C. may be regarded as the great commercial center of Asia. One third of the whole trade of India is done here. In 1877, the exports amounted to .€26,596,018, exclusive of treasure, and the imports to .€16,693,813. The chief exports are jute, cotton, rice, sugar, indigo, coffee, tea, saltpeter, linseed, shellac, buffalo horns, hides, castor-oil, cutch, gunny bags, etc. The jute exported in 1872 was valued at £4,000,000, the indigo at £2,500,000, and the tea at J.:1.400,000. In the same year 658 sailing-vessels and 301 steamers, with a total tonnage of 999,614, arrived in the Hooghly; and 637 sailing-ves sels and 301 steamers, with a total tonnage of 957,523, sailed. The principal industries are sugar refining, cotton manufacturing, flour, saw, and oil mills, and ship-building docks. Several newspapers are publislied. There are a few banks and numerous iusurance and other companies, with a chamber of commerce. Living is comparatively cheap, and most of the luxuries of life, as well as its necessaries, are to be had in the unpretentious shops of C. as readily as in most European towns. The annual fall of rain averages 64 in.; the temperature iu the shade ranges in July from 78" to and in Dec. from 60° to 79°.
C. is the headquarters of the governor-general of India, and the seat of the gov ernment, the supreme courts of justice, and of the court of appeal for the province of Bengal.