CHEVALIER, 3IrcffEL, an eminent French economist, born at Limoges, Jan. 13, 1806, was at the age of 18 admitted a pupil of the polytechnic school. Thence he went to the school of mines, and some days before the revolution of July, he was attached as an engineer to the department du Nord. Led away by the theories of the St. Simoniaus, he was for two years editor of the Globe, the organ of that sect. Joining the schism of 31. Enfantin, he took an active part in the compilation of the ./Arre Nouveau, the stand ard of their doctrines, and in 1832 suffered six months' imprisonment, on account of his free speculations in regard to religious and social questions, being regarded as an out rage on public morals. On his liberation, he at once retracted all that he had written in the Globe contrary to Christianity, and against marriage, and obtained from M. Tillers a special mission to the United States, to inquire into the systems of water and railway communication there. The results were published in his Letters from North, America (1836, 2 vols. 8vo). After a visit to England, he issued a work, entitled Material Inter ests in France: Public Works, Roads, Canals, Railways (1838, 8vo). He was named, suc cessively, chevalier of the legion of honor, councilor of state (1838), a member of the superior council of commerce, and of the royal council of the university; and in 1810, professor of political economy in the college of France. In 1840, he was re-established in the corps of mines as engineer of the first-class; and in 1846, elected a member of the chathber of deputies. Under the republic, he lost his various employments. He pub lished, in 1848, Letters on the Organization of Labor and the Question. of the Laborers; and after the coup d'état of Dec. 2 was restored to his professorship, and named coun
cillor of state. In 1860, C. assisted Mr. Cobden in carrying into effect the commercial treaty between France and England, and was created a senator. He became a grand officer of the legion of honor, 1861. Besides the works mentioned, he has written Polit ical Economy (184240); Probable Fall of the Value of Gold (1859—translated by Cobden); Mexico, Ancient and Modern (1863); etc.
in fortification, is a hastily constructed substitute for a regular abattis, to stay the progress of an advancing enemy. It may be constructed in any way of wood or iron, provided it presents an array of sharp or ragged points towards the enemy. Sometimes it is made of barrels or centers of timber, with spears springing out from all sides, in such a way as to constitute both a support and a defense. Among the materiel of an army under the care of the engineers, are sometimes comprised chevaux de-frise formed of cylindrical iron barrels, about 6 feet long, each having 12 holes to receive as many spears; the spears can be packed away in the barrel, when not in use. Each such piece constitutes a cheral; and many such, ranged en011 to end, form cliemzuz, to be used in ditches around a fortification, on the berme beneath the parapet, behind the glacis, across a breach in the rampart, or in any spot where a check to the storm ing-party is needed. At Badajoz, during the peninsular war, great service was ren dered by a chevaux-de-frise formed of sword-blades fixed into beams of wood. The name is said to have been derived from "Friesland horse," and to have beon first applied by the French dtiring the wars of the 17th century.