The hieroglyphical characters in their oldest form were easily recognizable figures: thus, the hieroglyph for sun was as in the fig. at a; for moon, as at b; for light, a combi nation of sun and moon, as at c; for to listen, folding-doors and an ear, as at d; for white, a very squint eye, in which hardly anything but the white is seen, as at e; for friends, the cp two valves of a bivalve shell, as at f. In the a course of time, through hasty and careless tracing, the objects denoted by the hiero- EIA glyphs have almost ceased to be recognizable.
The modern hieroglyphs corresponding to b' c the above are as represented at a', c', etc.
See Abel Remusat's "3iemoire sur l'Ecriturc Chinese Characters.
Chinoise," in the Memoires de l' Academie des Inscriptions, vol. viii. ; and for a view of the Chinese characters, both ancient and modern, Ilager's Monument de YU (Par. 1802).
The Chinese literature, in a geographical, ethnographical, and historical point of view, is unquestionably the most comprehensive and important of the whole of Asia. The printed catalogue of the emperor Kien-long's library is composed of 122 volumes; and a selection of the Chinese classics with commentaries and scholia, which was begun by the order of the same emperor, is said to comprise 180,000 volumes, of which, in the year 1818, 78,731 volumes had already appeared. In the five canonical or classical books, called King, are contained the oldest monuments of Chinese poetry, history, philosophy, and jurisprudence, some portions of which belong, perhaps, to the most ancient writings of the human race. Confucius (q.v.), in the Gth c. n.e., collected them from various sources, and in this collection they have been pretty faithfully handed down to us. Next to these in value are the Sse-sku, or the four books. These, as they were written by Confucius and his disciples, must be regarded as the most trustworthy source of insight into the intellectual and political life of the Chinese. A complete and elaborate edition of the five King and the four Shoo has been under taken by our great English Sinologue, Dr. Legge, under the title of " The Chinese Classics, with a translation, critical and exegetical notes, prolegomena, and copious indexes. In seven volumes;" of which five vols. appeared between 1801 and 1878. A popular edition, under the title of "The Chinese Classics translated into English," has also been published, of which vols. i. and ii. deal raspectively with the "Life and Teachings of Confucius" and the " Works of Mencius." Almost contemporary with Confucius lived Lao-tse (q.v.), who was born 604 n.c. He was the founder of a school of philosophy, more spiritual in its character than that of Confucius, but which has now degenerated into the lowest and must vulgar kind of demonology; see Is Livre de ler Voie de la Vertu, Chinese and French, by Julien (Par. 1842). In mythology, the Chinese have The Book of the Minintains and Seas, I he Ilistom of the Gods and Spirits, and some others. In jurisprudence may be mentioned the universal collection of laws, and the criminal code of the present dynasty; see Ta-Teing-la-li, being the Fun damental .Lams and Supplenuntary Statutes of the Penal Code of China, by Staunton (Lond. 1810). The Chinese literature' is also very rich in works on medicine, natural history, astronomy, agriculture, military science, music, and all branches of mechanics and industry; see Résumé des principaux nytites Chinois, stir la Culture des MO-km et l'Educatian des Vers-d-soie, by Julien (Par. 1837). In philology, the most valuable
works arc the dictionaries, in which the Chinese characters have been collected and elucidated by examples from the whole treasury of Chinese literature; but the greatest of all works of this kind is the dictionary of the emperor Kang-hi, which is now regarded as the highest authority for the pronunciation and meaning of the charac ters. Of the encyclopedias of the Chinese, the most conspicuous are that by Ma-tuan lin (1300 A.D.), called Wen-hien-thong-khao—i.e., an accurate investigation of the ancient documents, with rich supplements; and the Koo-kin-too-shoo-tsci-ching, or Complete Collec tion of Ancient and Modern Books—of which latter vast work a copy was secured for the British museum in 1877. But the most valuable portions of the Chinese literature are, undoubtedly, their historical and geographical works, which are indispensable to a knowledge of Upper Asia. Sse-ma-tlisian (100 n.c.) compiled, from every recognized authority, a work called Sse-ki, or historical memorials, which embraces the history of China from the year 2637 B.C. up to the commencement of the dynasty of Han in the 2d c. B.C. This work has been continued by the different dynasties, and forms a complete collection of the annals of the empire up to the termination of the Ming dynasty in 1643 A.D. It is known under the title of Nian-eul-see, or the 22 histories. The entire collection of the official annals from 2698 B.C. to 1645 A.D., comprising a period of 4343 years, and consisting of 3706 books, is to be found in the library at Munich.
Amid all their scientific labors, the Chinese have not neglected the art of poetry, in which they possess voluminous collections that have yet to be make known to Europe. In lyrical poetry, the most distinguished names are Li-thai-pe and Tu-su, both of whom flourished at the beginning of the 8th e. A.D.; see Davis " On the Poetry of the Chinese," in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. ii. The romantic poetry of the Chinese, although void of poetic beauty, is valuable for the insight it gives into their domestic life. Their dramatic poetry has laws peculiar to itself, and resembles partly the romantic drama of the Germans, and partly the comedia dells arts of the Italians. They have also a kind of novel in dialogues, which forms a subordinate species of drama. Besides the speaking persons or actors, there is what they call a singing person, who introduces into the piece songs which he sings to popular melodies, and appears to correspond in a rude way to the Greek chorus. The best collection of works in this species of literature is the Yuen-dschin-pe-tschong, i.e., the hundred dramas from the Mongol dynasty (1260-1341), from which all the Chinese dramas known to Europeans have been taken. A Chinese novel, affording a graphic view of the tastes and literary views of that people, was some time ago placed within the reach of European readers by the eminent Chinese scholar Stanislas Julien, under the title of Les Deux Jeunes Filler Lettrics (Par. 1860). English readers may also obtain instructive pictures of Chinese life from or the Two Fair Cousins, translated from the French version of Reinusat in 1827; and The Flowery Scroll, translated, with numerous learned notes, by sir John Bowring, in 1868. But valuable sketches will be found in Schott's Chinesische Sprachlehre (1857), Davis's Chinese Miscellanies (1865), and Wylie's Notes on. Chinese Literature (Shanghai, 1867).