Currency restrictions which tend to debase the value of current money, and thereby to lessen its purchasing power, especially in times of scarcity. The obvious manner in which a debased currency of paper or metal may operate in periods of scarcity is, that its purchasing power in all dealings with other nations is lessened not only in the degree to which it has been debased, but even to a greater extent by the prejudice, or the want of confidence, which its known debasement has inspired. Thus, if a merchant seeks to buy grain abroad, where the coinage value will have to be measured in relation to some coin of the country wherein the purchase is made, or in relation to the standard value of the precious metals in such country, it is certain that the coin tendered will have a purchasing power only in exact relation to its intrinsic character.
Speculating in grain and other food stuffs, known technically as forestalling, engross ing, regrating, etc., has undoubtedly tended to create famines, and in England offenses of this character were prohibited by statute in 1552, but these laws were in their nature arbitrary, and could be tolerated only because they appeared to be made in the interest of the people. Such laws are contrary to all known principles of political economy. Adam Smith and his followers succeeded in proving that no rational argument could be given for upholding them, and were largely instrumental in their final repeal.
Misapplication of grain. Under this head is mainly to be noted the excessive use of grain in brewing and distilling, and by burning, whether willfully or by misadventure; also those wanton acts of waste, such as burning grain-stores, firing ricks, which have too often occurred during periods of scarcity.
Among the natural causes of famines are: Rain. By excess of rain the soil becomes saturated, and seed decays. In hilly countries the seed is sometimes washed entirely out of the ground, and so is destroyed. This cause of famine is most frequent in tropical countries, where the rains often become torrents. Improved cultivation of the land, with good drainage, is the most effective remedy. Inundations from the sea, from rivers, from inland lakes, fall within this cate gory, and have Caused great mischief.
Frost. In temperate regions frost in several forms is destructive to vegetation. In the case of grain cultivation it may, by setting in early, prevent the efficient manipula tion of the soil, and the sowing of the autumn seed. Or by being protracted beyond the early months of the year, it will prevent spring sowing, and even seriously injure the young crops. Combined with rain it will frequently destroy the vitality of the seed while yet in the ground. In France and other wine and olive producing countries, the
damage occasioned by frost is immense. Such damage, as well as that occasioned by floods, is there a recognized danger against which insurance is purchased.
Drought. In all climates of a tropical character, drought is an important agent in preventing the development of vegetation. With moisture, solar heat develops luxuriant growth; without the moisture there is absolute sterility. The early Bible records refer to the rising of the waters of the Nile as the event upon which the fertility of Egypt depends. About 1060, the overflowing of this river failed for seven successive years, occasioning One of the greateSt famines of history. Two provinces were whell.
depopulated, and in another, half the inhabitants perished. Even in temperate climates long-continued drought is very disastrous.
Earthquakes seem to have but little influence in producing famine, except in the immediate locality of their devastations. Where, however, they have produced irrup tions of the sea or inland waters, which has not infrequently been the case, the damage has been extensive.
Hurricanes and storms frequently produce wide-spread injury. They also lead to irruptions of the.sea, and to the overflowing of rivers; but as a rule these occur at periods of the year when grain and other crops are not sufficiently advanced to sustain serious damage by shaking or otherwise, or else when they have been harvested.
Hailstorms are usually local in their effects—rarely extending beyond 60 M. in their greatest length, and some 6 in. in width, and generally confined to much smaller limits. They are most prevalent and destructive to grain and fruit in the summer and autumn months. In France hail-storms are frequent and severe. The damage which they occa sion has long been insured against in all parts of Europe.
Insects, vermin, etc. Insect plagues appear to have afflicted mankind from a very early period. Thus, flies and locusts were among the plagues of Egypt. The potato growing regions of the United States and Canada have been seriously afflicted in the last twenty years by the various species of insects known as potato-bugs. The recent famine in I\ orth China began in one district by a visitation of locusts. In India such visitations have occurred several times. England has suffered by plagues of insects, especially in 476, and again in 872. But few instances are recorded in which rats, mice, etc., destroyed crops to any serious extent. In 1581, there was a plague in Essex, Eng land, and in 1812-13, a plague of rats in the Madras presidency, which in part occasioned the famine of that year.