The after-swell of the French revolution broke over all the continent of Europe in wave after wave of war. The aversion of Britain to the insane democracy of France was not concealed, and in 1793, a few days after the execution of their king, the French declared war against Britain, In the confused warfare that followed, the English under lord Howe, in 1794, defeated the French fleet in the channel; under sir John Jervis they defeated the Spanish fleet off cape St. Vincent in 1797; and also in that year, under Duncan, they defeated the Dutch off Camperdown; and in 1798 Nelson was vic torious on the Nile over the French fleet that had conveyed Napoleon Bonaparte and his troops to Egypt. In 1801, he bombarded Copenhagen, and partially destroyed the Danish fleet; and the forces under sir Ralph Abercromby—who was mortally wounded —gained the victory of Alexandria over the troops which Napoleon had left to menace the power of Britain in the east., On Mar. 25, 1802, the treaty of peace of Amiens was signed, but, within a year, hostilities were renewed. In 1803; Hanover was pied the French. On Oct. 21, 1805, Nelson lost his life, and gained his greatest vic tory of Trafalgar over the French and Spanish fleets. Napoleon's splendid victory of„ Austerlitz over the Austrians and Russians, Dec., 1805, was survived only a few weeks by the great statesman Pitt, whose breaking heart and constitution could not sustain the shock of this last disappointment. Napoleon's Berlin decree of 1806, and his Milan decree of 1807, declaring the British dominions in a state of blockade on purpose to destroy British commerce, were not supported by a sufficient navy to carry them into execution by capturing vessels trading with Britain; but they did 'no inconsiderable damage. In 1808, sir Arthur Wellesley landed in Portugal, and defeated the French at Vimieira; but the advantage of this victory was thrown away in the convention of Cintra„ The retreat, four months after, to Corunna of the English army under sir John Moore, from overwhelming odds, and its safe embarkation in Jan., 1809. after the repulse
of Marshal Soult, has secured a reputation for the able and distinguished general who fell there, hardly inferior to that of thOse who have died in the moment of victory. In April of that year, sir Arthur returned to the command in the peninsula, and after con quering at Talavera on July 8, wearing out the powers of the assailing French behind the lines of Torres Vedras during the last months of 1810, and conquering at Fuentes d'Onoro in 1811, at Salamanca in 1812, at Vittoria in 1813,(as lord Wellington), and in other battles and sieges, lie drove the French out of the peninsula. The struggle was terminated on the eventful field of Waterloo (q.v.), June 18. 1815.
On Jan. 1, 1801, Ireland was united to Great Britain, and its separate legislation was abolished. During this reign ninny Scotelimen had forced their way to the first places in the state; all the Jacobite feelings had died out; and thd had become not a legislative one merely, but a union of society, literature, thought, and enterprise. The most original and vigorous thought of this period found its expression in poetry, and among its great poets, the most noteworthy are Byron, Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Walter Scott, the last of whom is also at the head of all the writers of prose-fiction. In spite of the depressing effects of war, commerce greatly increased during the 60 years of this reign; and the revenue, which at the beginning of it was under nine millions, lead, during the years of the French war, been increased more than sevenfold, thus showing, though by an undesirable method, the vast increase of the resources of the country. Chemistry and the steam-engine were beginning to alter the face of society. Among legislative reforms, the most conspicuous was the abolition of the punishment of death for minor crimes, and generally the statute-book, which had greatly increased, became more and more favorable to individual liberty.