HISTORY, a narrative of events and of the lives and acts of men, of families, of tribes, and of nations. History first took the form of tradition, and was handed down orally from generation to generation. Much of this tradition was obscure and myth ical, assuming the form of religious belief. Written history is as old as the invention of letters, and among the earliest monuments were sculptured inscriptions and records of the acts of rulers, especially their victories. The oldest known historical writings are on the monoliths, temples, and pyramids of Egypt, the cuneiform inscriptions of Assyria, and those found in the ruins of ancient Greek and Phenician towns. The history of ancient Egypt. so far as recorded, extends from about 4,000 years to 700 n.c., about the time of the dissolution of the emnire. Near the close of the iith Ilerodutus, the "father of history," was born, and his works are, so far as known, the earliest that can be classed under the name. It is usually supposed that he wrote, or meant to write, a universal history, but such was not the result; it was rather a partial history of the wars between Greece and the barbarians, with incidental geographical information attached.
Thucydides, the second great historian, was of a different order of mind. Ile approached the study of history front a philosophical standpoint, endeavoring to explain the actions which he recorded, while Polybius enlarged and improved upon the plan of Thueydides. The historians of Greece and Rome usually confined them selves to plain narrative, as Xenophon in his Analmsis, Caiiar in his Commentaries, ar Livy in his more extended history. Tacitus alone showed distinct purpose in his work, lending his genius to the portrayal of tyranny in its blackest colors. Eusebins was the first great ecclesiastical historian. Procopius can be regarded only as a chronicler, neither scrupulous nor exact in his stories. Few historians appeared between the fall of the Roman empire and the middle ages, but the mental activity of the 12th c. and the invention of printing brought many into the field, and as facilities increased and the inter course between nations became more frequent, we find a corresponding tendency towards historical writing. In regard to style, Macchiavelli and Gnicciardini were low" con
sidered models of composition. Later historians, however, while imbibing the spirit of their writings, formed styles of their own, in accordance with the prevailing tendencies of their respective ages. De Thou in France, Mariana in Spain, Strada, the Dutch his; torian of the Low Countries, and sir Walter Raleigh, with his wonderful chronicles of fresh discovery, are all authorities to be recognized and consnIted, while in more modern days appeared Hume and Robertson, and the greater Gibbon• the writer of the Decline aral Fall of' the Roman Empire, one of the most stupendous historical works ever produced.
The tendency of modern history is critical rather than merely narrative. Philology and archeology have very materially altered the reading of the histories that have conic down to us, and in which the world has placed implicit faith. liaen the Bible is sub jected to the ordeal of a new translation, rte can hardly expect human history to escape. But if much that we have hitherto accepted as substantial is found to he mythical. it by no means follows that the main facts of history, as we have received them, are likely to be overthrown. Many of the histories written within the last half century are wonder ful mononnents of critical research. Authors are no longer content to accept the popu lar relation of occurrences without at least endeavoring to understand the motives which led to them and the effects produced by them. In these days the historian is no longer a mere reporter; 1113 must be prepared to analyze character and to weigh events. He must! seek his materials at the fountain-head, must compare the private with the public actions of the characters he portrays, and present to his readers a picture of men and women which shall be accurate in minute detail, and yet embrace the remoter consequences of their actions.