India is bounded on the n.e. by the range of the Himalayas, the great water-shed of central Asia. These mountains consist of granitic rocks which have penetrated the strati fied rocks, thrown them up in endless confusion, and metamorphosed them in many places into gneiss, mica-schist, clay-slate, or crystalline limestone. Layers of sandstone and conglomerate extend along the base of the mountains. They are of the miocene age, containing the remains of species of camel, giraffe, hippopotamus, sivatherium, elephant, crocodile, and tortoise. These are extensively developed in the Sewalik hills. An immense tract of post-tertiary alluvial deposits covers the whole of the river-basins of the Ganges and the Indus, stretching across the n. of India from sea to sea. The eastern and western Ghauts consist of metamorphic rocks, which are continued across the country to the n. of the Godavery. Between this transverse band of altered strata and the diluvial deposits of the n., a large tract of country is occupied with paleozoic rocks, frequently broken through and covered with different kinds of trap, and in some places overlaid with secondary and fresh-water tertiary strata. One of the most important labors of prof. Oldham and his geological staff has been the exploration of the great Indian coal-fields. They lie in a region bounded by the Ganges on the n., and extending beyond the Godavery on the south. The coals come from one geological formation called ' Damuda," from the river Damodar, in the valley of which the chief beds occur. It differs little geologically from the carboniferous beds of England. Iron, copper, and lead are worked in different parts of India. Salt is obtained from the Salt range above referred to, and produced abundantly by evaporation in the salt lakes of the Thur.
Vegetable Productians.—The vegetation of India is as varied as its soil and climate, and passes from the flora of a tropical to that of an alpine region. The groves of palm that border the coast, and, in the interior, the umbrageous mango topes, are striking features of Indian scenery, Rice is the chief article of food iu India, anchis produced iu all the parts of the country in which irrigation is practiced. Maize and wheat are the grains cultivated in the n.w. provinces. Opium is one of the most valuable products of India. In 1871-72 the value of the chests exported from Bombay and Calcutta to China was S:6,859.000. Coffee is largely produced in Ceylon, and the culti. vation of the plant is rapidly spreading in southern India. Tea cultivation is now carrieea on with success in Assam, and is spreading over all the hill-countries of n.w. ladle introduced from South America in 1O60, has been naturalized with g•ea, success. The cost of doing FO was £61,719. " The return," Mr. Markham says, "repr.• cents a value which is simply incalculable and without price;" a cheap supply of (Muhl being one of the most certain means of averting the fevers that prevail in the hot and moist parts of India. As a commercial speculation the measure ultimately will prove highly remunerative. The growth of cotton has been much extended since the American war. The finest is produced in Berar. The rhea, or jute plant, is grown in Assam and lien gal, and has recently given rise to an important trade. India-rubber is another important product of Assam, the demand for which is increasing. Within the last 15 years great attention has been paid to the importance of preserving the Indian forests. The destruc tion of the woods was found to give rise to destructive floods, and to render the water supply uncertain and capricious dining the dry season. The Indian cultivators have been
rapidly imroving in prosperity, and with that improvement there has been an increasing demand for timber for house construction and furniture—a demand further augmented by the requirements of the railways. In order to protect existing forests, and extend the area of the timber-producing districts, the Indian forest conservancy department was organized, the main objects of which were the definition and demarkation of reserved forests, and the prevention of jungle tires—that is to say, of the native practice of burn for cultivation, and the cutting and clearing away of creepers round the young trees. The system of preparing candidates for forest service was commenced in 1867, when the first examination was held by the civil service examiners. Since that time, a large number of officers who have studied forestry in England, Germany, and France have been sent to India, and great satisfaction has been expressed with the work they have done.
Anima/.9.—The domesticated animals are horses, asses, mules, oxen, buffaloes, sheep, and elephants. Of wild beasts the most formidable is the Bengal tiger. The other beasts of prey are leopards, wolves, jackals, panthers, bears, hyenas, lynxes, and foxes. Of poisonous snakes the cobra da capello, or black-hooded snake, the cobra manilla, and sand snake are the most common. The number of people killed by wild beasts is a feature of Indian life. In 1869 a tigress killed 127 people, and stopped a public road for many weeks. In 1871, 14,529 were known to have lost their lives in that year by snake-bites. In 1871 the total number of deaths known to have been cruised by dangerous animals of all classes was 18,078. It is believed that if systematic returns were kept, the number in British India would be found to exceed 20,000.
Cilmate.—In a country extending over 20° of lat.—one extremity of which runs far into the torrid zone, and the other terminates in a range of lofty mountains rising far above the line of perpetual snow—a country embracing within its ample eirenmference lowland plains, elevated plateaux, and alpine regions, the climate must differ greatly. Hindustan proper may be said to have three well-marked seasons—the cool, the hot, and the rainy. The cool months are Nov., Dec., Jan., and a part of Feb.; the dry hot weather precedes, and the moist hot weather follows, the periodical rains. The climate of southern India is greatly regulated by the monsoons (q.v.). The central table-land is cool, dry, and healthy. At Ootaeamnnd, on the Neilgherries, 7,300 ft. above the level of the sea, the mean annual temperature is 57° F.; at Madras, S3°; Bombay, 84°: Calcutta, 79°; Bangalore, 74°; and at Delhi, 72°. The fall of rain varies greatly in different parts of India. A map of the Indian rainfall given by Mr. Markham in his report, published in 1873, shows that in the whole of n.c. India, from the valley of the Sutlej to the mouth of the. Irrawaddy, including the sub-Himalayan countries, Assam, and British Burmah, and between the western Ghatits and the Coromandel coast, exceeds 75 inches. In the interior of the Deccan it is less than :10, and in Multan and Sinde less than 1,5 inches. The remainder of India is placed between the extremes represented by these damp and dry belts, but is, as compared with Europe, an arid country. Hence the necessity of tanks and irrigation canals to supply moisture to the soil, and to obviate the danger e,f dry seasons.